2026

2(86)

Małgorzata Neumann*, Adriana Krupa**

Architectural standards of public kindergartens in Warsaw

and supportive design for children’s development

DOI: 10.37190/arc260208

Published in open access. CC BY-NC license.

Abstract

The kindergarten classroom is a fundamental setting in every child’s life. It plays a vital role in their emotional, social, and cognitive development.

Although numerous theoretical studies emphasise the importance of space in early childhood education, there is still a lack of in-depth research ex-

amining the role of high-quality learning environments in contemporary preschool education.

The authors’ objective was to assess the quality of contemporary kindergarten classrooms in Warsaw based on parameters recognised by research

as benecial to children’s development and well-being. In the rst stage of the study, they carried out a detailed eld literature review to identify

fteen relevant characteristics of qualitative space. The second stage involved a study of ten nursery classrooms in newly built state-run nurseries in

Warsaw. This part resulted in an assessment of the degree to which theoretical principles had been implemented in the examined facilities, where an

average of 5.7 out of 15 indicators were met. The analysis carried out can be regarded as a rst step towards identifying design gaps and outlining

potential directions for systemic changes that may be relevant to design practice on a national scale.

Key words: kindergarten architecture, design for children, educational environment, early childhood education

Introduction

The environment and space in which children spend

most of their time are of fundamental importance to their

emotional, social, and cognitive development. The kinder-

garten classroom is therefore a fundamental setting in every

child’s life (Acer et al. 2016). Despite numerous theoretical

studies on the role of space in early childhood education,

there remains a lack of in-depth research on the actual qual-

ity of contemporary kindergartens in Poland. Questions

therefore arise as to the extent to which the recommenda-

tions contained in the academic literature are reected in

specic design solutions, which recommended spatial char-

acteristics are being incorporated into the design of newly

built kindergartens, and which continue to be overlooked.

In seeking answers to these questions, research was

conducted aimed at assessing the quality of contemporary

kindergarten classrooms. This research represents an at

tempt to link theoretical knowledge with analysis of real

kindergarten spaces. It began with a wide-ranging review

of the subject literature, encompassing a search of sources

available on academic platforms and online repositories.

This stage aimed to identify the key spatial parameters in-

uencing children’s development. The second phase of the

research involved an analysis of ten newly built public kin-

dergartens in Warsaw against the established criteria. The

ndings may be regarded as a rst step towards identifying

design gaps and outlining directions for potential systemic

changes that may be relevant to design practice.

State of research

The importance of thoughtful spatial design for children

was emphasised by pioneers of educational methods such

as Heinz Werner, Jean Piaget, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi,

and Maria Montessori at the beginning of the 20

century.

However, the ndings and observations of practitioners did

ORCID:

0009-0006-3766-1816. Faculty of Architecture, War-

saw University of Technology, Poland, e-mail: malgorzata.neumann.

dokt@pw.edu.pl

ORCID:

0009-0000-9178-7002. Faculty of Architecture, War-

saw University of Technology, Poland.

92 Małgorzata Neumann, Adriana Krupa

not receive empirical validation until the 1980s. It was then

that the rst studies emerged conrming that the physical

environment inuences children’s emotional, social, and

cognitive development (Moore 1986). This thesis has been

conrmed on numerous subsequent occasions. As Helen

Knauf has observed, the physical environment is today

widely described as the “third teacher”, and the architec-

ture of space is an important element of education (2019).

The younger the child, the stronger the connection between

motor and cognitive development. The role played by the

surrounding environment, as well as the opportunities and

challenges it contains, is crucial in early childhood educa-

tion (Berris, Miller 2011).

Many researchers emphasise the importance of appropri-

ate organisation of the kindergarten classroom for the op timal

development of the children who occupy it. An ap propriately

designed space can support young users at in di vidual stages

of development and help them to reach their full potential

(Acer et al. 2016). For example, when activity corners are

clearly delineated and well dened, children engage more

readily and independently without adult assistance (Moore

1986). A key element of the kindergarten classroom is the

appropriate spatial division into zones, which should include

areas for play, learning, relaxation, and undened (or exi-

ble) open space (Brown, Burger 1984).

Among the most important parameters of the kindergar-

ten classroom is the ratio of classroom area to the number

of occupants. On average, this should be no less than 3 m

per child (Acer et al. 2016). Equally important is adequate

daylighting of the interior. The literature highlights the ad-

vantages of natural lighting, which has a positive eect

children’s mood and behaviour, as well as its limited bac -

tericidal

eect (Terczyńska 2021). Another signicant pa -

ra meter is the visual connection of the interior with out-

door greenery through low-set windows and direct access

to a garden (Schutte, Torquati and Beattie 2017). Research

ndings also indicate that introducing plants, solid wood

elements, and soft materials such as cushions, poues, or

mattresses into the classroom has a benecial eect on the

wellbeing of its occupants (Hanták, Končeková 2023; Mo-

hidin, Ismail and Ramli 2015).

The development of the Childcare Physical En viron-

ment Rating Scale (CPERS) by Gary T. Moore and Takemi

Sugiyama represented an important step in the assessment

of educational space quality (2007). This scale enabled the

assessment and comparison of facilities in terms of their en-

vironmental and spatial qualities – aspects that were prac -

tically absent from other quality assessment tools available

at the time. Building on the CPERS scale, the Visual En-

vironment Analysis was developed, which involves the

detailed mapping of kindergarten interiors in their existing

state and the analysis of their spatial characteristics in order

to identify ways in which these spaces could function more

eectively (Knauf 2019).

Some researchers have proposed systematising a list of

characteristics and parameters considered most important

for children’s development and behaviour. Konstantina

Rentzou identied such factors as: school size, number of

children per square metre, spatial organisation (zoning),

furniture and equipment, availability of spaces for individ-

ual work, ceiling height, colours, and noise levels (2014). In

Poland, Ewa Terczyńska developed a classication of fac-

tors inuencing the character of a place, including: inti ma-

cy and sense of security, ease of movement and orien ta tion

in the surroundings, quality of lighting, acoustic qua lity,

climatic quality, aesthetic impressions, spatial arran gement,

and the manner of spatial dierentiation (2021).

Methods

Selected spatial parameters

On the basis of the literature review, a checklist of archi-

tectural parameters was compiled to serve as a framework

for assessing kindergarten classrooms. The review identied

15 spatial parameters that appeared most frequently in the

analysed sources or were supported by compelling empir-

ical evidence. For greater clarity, these were grouped into

three thematic categories: architecture, equipment, and inte-

rior design. For each selected parameter, specic assessment

criteria were dened on the basis of the literature reviewed.

Legal context

Prior to assessing kindergarten classroom spaces against

the listed parameters (Table 1), a review was also conducted

of the applicable legal and technical regulations governing

preschool establishments in Poland. These requirements

derive from the Building Law Act (Ustawa… 1994), the

Re gulation on Technical Conditions (Rozporządzenie…

2002), the Regulation on the Conditions for Operating Kin-

dergartens (Rozporządzenie… 2017), sanitary regulations

(Rozporządzenie… 1997), and re protection regulations

(Rozporządzenie… 2010). Additionally, in May 2021, the

Capital City of Warsaw issued a set of design standards and

tools for the shaping of functional, exible, pro-ecological,

and inclusive school and kindergarten architecture, entitled

“Szkoła dobrze zaprojektowana” [Well-Designed School]

(Zarządzenie... 2021). This document serves as a source of

knowledge on the expectations of local authorities regard-

ing newly established facilities and was used as a reference

point in the analysis. It should be noted, however, that giv-

en the construction timeline of the selected buildings, it

may be assumed that all of them were designed prior to the

publication of the guide.

Field research process

The eld research focused on public kindergartens built

in the last decade and located in Warsaw. The capital, owing

to its intensive recent investment in educational infrastruc-

ture, provided a suciently large and stimulating research

context, not least because of the relatively high quality of

its public architecture. The ten-year period was adopted as

the boundary enabling the capture of contemporary design

approaches. Sample selection was exploratory in nature

and was constrained by the availability of facilities for

which consent to conduct research was obtained from dis-

trict oces and the management of individual kindergar-

ten establishments. During the period under consideration,

Architectural standards of public kindergartens in Warsaw and supportive design for children’s development 93

Parameters Description Source To determine Research process

ARCHITECTURE

Density

Density, i.e., the number

of children, has a significant

impact on their group behaviour.

Excessive density leads to more

frequent aggressive

and destructive behaviour.

Moore (1986);

Şahin, Dostoğlu

(2016)

What is the number

of children and teachers?

What is the room area?

What is the ratio

of children to floor area?

1. Environmental survey

2. Measuring the classroom

3. Determining the ratio

of children per m

Zoning

Zoning enhances the quality and

complexity of play, extends

engagement time, and strengthens

concentration and interest.

It comprises: a play zone,

a learning zone, a relaxation zone,

an intimate space,

and an undefined (open) space.

Brown, Burger

(1984);

Rentzou (2014)

Can zones be

distinguished and which

ones? What part of the

space remains undefined?

1. Identifying zones, taking basic

measurements and photographs

2. Marking zones on the floor plan

3. Determining the number of zones

Spatial layout

Children are more inclined

to engage in various activities

in an open space

that provides good visibility

of individual activity corners.

Significant visual barriers

limit opportunities for collaborative

play and hinder spontaneous

interaction.

Legendre (1999);

Moore (2002)

How are individual zones

delineated?

Are they open, semi-open,

or closed?

Are there significant

visual barriers?

1. Checking whether the zoning

criterion is met; if so:

2. Determining whether individual

zones are open, partially open,

or closed to the undefined

(open) space

3. Identifying visual barriers

4. Marking on the floor plan

5. Preparing a photographic

inventory

Natural

daylighting

The benefits of natural lighting

should be maximised,

as it has a positive effect on mood,

behaviour, and concentration,

and has a bactericidal effect.

It is desirable for daylight to enter

from more than one direction

to avoid strong contrasts.

Sanoff (1995);

Terczyńska (2021)

What is the ratio

of window area to floor

area, and what is

the distance from

the window to the furthest

point in the room?

1. Calculating window area

2. Checking the distance from

windows to opposite walls

Variable

ceiling height

Changes in ceiling height make

children experience

the space as more welcoming

and conducive to cooperation,

naturally encouraging them

to engage more frequently

in collaborative activities

and cooperative play.

Read, Sugawara

and Brandt (1999)

Is there a difference

in ceiling heights?

If so, what is the height

difference

and over what area?

1. Measuring ceiling heights

and their areas

Functional

and visual

connection

between

interior

and exterior

A functional and visual connection

between the classroom

and the outdoor space promotes

children’s motor development,

supports brain activity, and ensures

better oxygenation. Large glazed

surfaces, low-set windows,

and direct access to a terrace,

garden, or playground make

the outdoor zone an extension

of the classroom.

Moore (2002)

Is there a view from

inside the classroom

to an outdoor

play/learning area?

What design treatments

were used to strengthen

the interior–exterior

relationship?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Determining whether there is

a view from inside to an outdoor

play/learning area

3. Determining whether

and what design treatments

were used to strengthen

the interior–exterior relationship

Table 1. Summary of spatial parameters conducive to the development and proper functioning of children

(elaborated by M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

Tabela 1. Zestawienie parametrów przestrzennych sprzyjających rozwojowi i prawidłowemu funkcjonowaniu dzieci

(oprac. M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

94 Małgorzata Neumann, Adriana Krupa

Parameters Description Source To determine Research process

EQUIPMENT

Multi-

functional

equipment

Children’s sensory and creative

development can be supported

through the flexible shaping

of the educational space,

adapted to their

individual capabilities.

Mobile and multi-functional

equipment promotes

the creation of an environment

that stimulates imagination

and activity.

Şahin, Dostoğlu

(2016)

Is there equipment with

variable functions?

In what way can

it be changed?

Is it used in accordance

with its intended purpose?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Marking on the floor plan

3. Determining how these elements

can change

4. Asking the caregiver whether they

are used in a positive way

Equipment

supporting

motor

development

Access to equipment

supporting gross motor

development – both indoors

and outdoors – encourages

children to be more

physically active.

This favours the importance

of physical fitness

and strengthening their

sense of agency.

Maxwell (1996)

Are there items

of equipment

in the classroom

that support motor

development, e.g.,

for climbing

or pulling up?

How and whether children

use them?

1. Identifying equipment

supporting motor development

2. Marking on the floor plan

3. Photographic inventory

4. Asking the caregiver whether

they are used in a positive way

Presence of

soft elements

The use of materials

and furnishings

such as carpets, cushions,

and upholstered seating

in the kindergarten classroom

increases the comfort

of the space, improves

acoustics, and promotes a sense

of safety and cosiness.

Mohidin, Ismail

and Ramli (2015)

Are there soft elements

such as carpets, sofas,

pouffes, or cushions?

If so, what kind?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Marking on the floor plan

Presence

of wooden

elements

Introducing solid wood

furnishings and detailing

to the classroom

– with which children have

visual, tactile, and olfactory

contact – has a beneficial

effect on their emotional

and physiological wellbeing,

and supports the creation

of an inclusive environment

for all children, regardless

of their abilities

and limitations.

Hanták,

Končeková (2023)

Are there solid wood

elements?

If so, what kind?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Marking on the floor plan

Table 1 cont. Summary of spatial parameters conducive to the development and proper functioning of children

(elaborated by M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

Tabela 1 cd. Zestawienie parametrów przestrzennych sprzyjających rozwojowi i prawidłowemu funkcjonowaniu dzieci

(oprac. M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

Architectural standards of public kindergartens in Warsaw and supportive design for children’s development 95

Parameters Description Source To determine Research process

INTERIOR DESIGN

Access to

greenery

The opportunity for children

to have daily contact with

the natural environment,

such as a garden,

a playground with vegetation,

or green areas

in the immediate vicinity

of the kindergarten, supports

concentration, self-regulation

processes, and attentional

recovery.

Schutte, Torquati

and Beattie

(2017);

Faber Taylor,

Butts-Wilmsmeyer

(2020)

Is there a view of

greenery from the

kindergarten classroom?

What plants are present

in the classroom?

How can access

to greenery be rated on

a scale from 0 to 5?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Determining whether there

is a view of greenery from inside

3. Inventory of indoor plants

– marked on the floor plan

4. Rating access to greenery on

a Likert scale

Layout

flexibility

The ability to transform space,

furnishings, and materials

by moving or combining

them promotes children’s

experience of environmental

variability, stimulates imagination,

supports creative thinking,

and encourages the development

of new solutions and approaches.

Rentzou (2014);

Şahin, Dostoğlu

(2016)

Do the classroom

furnishings consist

of permanently fixed

elements or movable

furniture?

What is the degree

of layout flexibility on

a scale from 0 to 5?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Marking elements

(fixed/movable) on the floor plan

3. Determining the degree

of spatial flexibility

4. Asking whether, how,

and how often the space

is rearranged

Spatial

definition

Clear delineation of activity zones

promotes more frequent,

more positive social interactions

among children, based on

cooperation rather than competition

or aggression.

Moore (1986)

How can the kindergarten

classroom be rated

in terms of spatial

definition on a scale

from 0 to 5?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Rating the degree of spatial

definition on a Likert scale

Attractiveness,

cosiness and

“home-like”

atmosphere

The classroom space should be

attractive, evoking in the child

a sense of security and associations

with something familiar

and welcoming.

Rentzou (2014)

How can the kindergarten

classroom be rated

in terms of attractiveness,

cosiness,

and a “home-like”

atmosphere on a scale

from 0 to 5?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Rating attractiveness, cosiness,

and „home-like” atmosphere on

a Likert scale

Balanced

colour palette

The colour palette in

the kindergarten classroom

should be balanced – an excess

of white and monochromatic

shades may cause tension,

while an overabundance of

colour leads to sensory

overstimulation. As a base, warm

natural skin or sand tones

are recommended, supplemented

by considered colour accents

that organise and enliven the space.

Gaines, Curry

(2011)

What colours/shades

appear in the classroom

on walls, floors, and

ceilings? How can

the degree of colour

palette balance be rated on

a scale from 0 to 5?

1. Photographic inventory

2. Preparing a colour scheme

for the classroom

3. Rating the balance of the colour

palette on a Likert scale

capital-city kindergartens were built and commissioned,

but the nal research sample comprised 10 facilities lo-

cated in the districts of: Włochy, Żoliborz, Wola, Wawer,

Targówek, Praga-Północ, and Wilanów

Kindergartens nos: 183, 424, 426, 427, 432, 433, 437, 440, 443,

and 446.

In each of the studied kindergartens, designated BT01

through BT10, an on-site inspection was carried out in-

volving observation, photographic inventory, and mea-

surements of a typical classroom for that kindergarten, as

indicated by the management. Kindergarten classrooms ex-

hibit a high degree of repetition – they have similar spatial

layouts, interior character, and equipment within a single

building – so selecting a place for research was not a prob-

96 Małgorzata Neumann, Adriana Krupa

lem for the sta. The research was conducted by one team

member performing the tasks described in the “Research

Process” column (Table 1). An additional element of the

research was a supplementary interview conducted with the

management or teachers in order to specify certain infor-

mation in detail, e.g., the availability of soft elements or the

number of children in a group.

On the basis of the collected materials, building data

sheets were prepared (Fig. 1), comprising oor plans, pho-

tographic documentation, and an assessment of selected pa-

rameters. In the case of features that are dicult to subject

to dichotomous assessment, a ve-point Likert scale was

used, based on the subjective perception of the research-

er. Values of 0 and 5 points corresponded to two extreme

levels of criterion fullment. For example, for the parame-

ter “attractiveness, cosiness, and ‘home-like’ atmosphere”,

a score of 0 indicates the absence of elements such as soft

furnishings, plants, decorations, or children’s artwork, re-

sulting in a neutral, unfamiliar character of the space. Inter-

mediate values (2–3 points) indicate the presence of at least

two of the listed elements, while a score of 5 corresponds

to their clear diversity and accumulation, conducive to the

creation of a home-like atmosphere.

The building data sheets provide a concise characterisa-

tion of each of the analysed preschool classrooms, being at

the same time a base for assessing the degree of fullment

of individual criteria in the parameter summary (Table 1).

They were prepared by one of the researchers and subse-

quently formed the basis for discussion and the formulation

of a joint nal assessment of each parameter by both au-

thors. The compilation was designed with the assumption

that the analysis would be conducted by persons with ar-

chitectural training and design experience, since some pa-

rameters required expert assessment. Both researchers are

competent in this eld, with ve and ten years of profes-

sional practice respectively. Furthermore, the preparation of

building data sheets was an attempt to ensure transparency

and to enable scrutiny of the basis for decisions made and

assessments given.

Limitations

The empirical research conducted was primarily explor-

atory in character and may be regarded as a rst step to-

wards broader analyses of the quality of contemporary kin-

dergartens in Poland. This gives rise to several limitations.

The rst is reliance on the opinions of only two experts,

which introduces an element of subjectivity and personal

perception on the part of the researchers, despite an attempt

to apply standardised assessment criteria. The second is the

uncontrolled selection of the research sample, which was

based on availability – i.e., consents obtained – rather than

a precise selection procedure. Furthermore, none of the

studied kindergartens were designed after the publication

Fig. 1. Building data sheet – template (elaborated by M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

Il. 1. Wzór karty obiektu (oprac. M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

Architectural standards of public kindergartens in Warsaw and supportive design for children’s development 97

semi-open zone the ceiling was lowered by approximate-

ly 80 cm, probably in order to conceal technical installa-

tions rather than as a deliberate design choice. Despite this,

the area naturally functions as a zone with a somewhat dis-

tinct character. It was also noted that all analysed rooms

have a ceiling height of at least 3 m, which exceeds the sta -

tutory minimum of 2.5 m and appears appropriate to the

room size.

Functional and visual connection between interior and

exterior – the great majority of classrooms aord a view of

a green garden or terrace (all except BT09). The interiors

were designed to emphasise the connection with the sur-

roundings – most commonly through low-set windows or

direct access to a patio.

2. Equipment parameters.

Multi-functional equipment – no elements with an adap-

table function were identied in any of the analysed class-

rooms. These do not constitute a standard feature of kinder-

garten equipment, which may be attributable both to their

limited availability and to management preferences for

readily available, certied furniture with a clearly dened

function.

Equipment supporting motor development – no perma-

nent equipment for motor development was found in the

analysed classrooms. In one case, such items were stored

in a storeroom; in the others, they were located in separate

multi-purpose rooms. This approach is consistent with the

traditional model of preschool education, in which physical

activity takes place at designated times and places, and the

presence of physically engaging elements in classrooms

might disrupt the daily routine.

Presence of soft elements – the presence of such ele-

ments in the classrooms is limited and amounts to a carpet

and, at most, a few cushions or poues. Their impact on

sensory experience is negligible, particularly as some are

made available only occasionally, for example at children’s

request. Only in three classrooms (BT06, BT07, BT09) was

a permanent area with a sofa or nap cot identied, enabling

them to be considered as meeting the criterion for the pres-

ence of soft elements in a measure capable of inuencing

children’s perception and behaviour.

Presence of wooden elements – the level of criterion ful-

lment is very low. Elements made of natural wood were

found in only one classroom (BT06), in the form of ply-

wood chairs. In the remaining spaces, laminate furniture

imitating wood predominates, along with ooring or panels

featuring a wood-grain pattern, which – owing to their dif-

ferent texture, manner of reecting light, and thermal con-

ductivity – are not classied as wooden materials. The lim-

ited presence of wooden elements is probably attributable

to their higher cost and the limited availability and variety

of such items in the market oering intended for education-

al establishments.

3. Interior design parameters.

Access to greenery – eight out of ten analysed kinder-

gartens meet the criterion for access to greenery, primarily

through a visual or direct connection with a garden (BT01,

BT02, BT03, BT06, BT07, BT08, BT09, BT10). This ap-

plies also to facilities in dense urban developments. Potted

plants inside kindergarten classrooms have a lesser eect.

of “Szkoła dobrze zaprojektowana” (Zarządzenie... 2021),

meaning that this analysis does not account for the inu-

ence of that guide on spatial quality.

The identication of these shortcomings provides a good

starting point for further research. In future analyses, it

would be advisable to expand the qualitative component

– in particular to include in-depth interviews with teaching

sta and users – as well as to involve a greater number of

experts and to extend the research sample in terms of con-

struction period and location.

Results

The results of the analysis of building data sheets are

presented in Table 2, in which fullment of a given crite-

rion by individual classrooms is indicated by a plus sign.

Despite the limitations mentioned above, the data obtained

allow for the identication of dominant design tendencies,

showing which architectural aspects are systematically tak-

en into account in the design process and which are margin-

alised. The degree of fullment of the adopted criteria for

individual kindergartens ranges between 3 and 10 out of 15

parameters, with an average of 5.7.

The assessment of individual items is presented in the

form of bullet points below.

1. Architecture parameters.

Density – in eight out of ten analysed classrooms, the

maximum permissible group size of 25 children was re-

corded. Only three classrooms meet the standard of 3 m

per child recommended in the literature (BT03, BT04,

BT10). The remaining facilities mostly correspond to the

minimum indicator of 2.5 m

recommended for new de-

velopments, while two classrooms have an indicator of

2.35 m

. Given the considerable oor area of the class-

rooms (an average of 67.8 m

), it may be concluded that the

problem lies not in insucient oor area but in group size.

Zoning – the functional layout of classrooms in all ana-

lysed kindergartens is similar, consisting of three basic

zones: a didactic zone (with tables), a didactic-play zone

(carpet), and an area of indeterminate purpose between

them. In three of the ten classrooms, a relaxation zone was

additionally identied, enabling these spaces to meet the

adopted criterion (BT04, BT06, BT07).

Spatial layout – the majority of classrooms are char-

acterised by an open, rectangular plan without delineated

semi-open zones. Exceptions include: a classroom with an

irregular shape (BT04) and a classroom with a delineated

relaxation zone (BT06).

Natural daylighting – in the majority of analysed kinder-

garten classrooms, the ratio of window area to room area

is higher than the required 1:5. At the same time, only two

classrooms (BT01, BT04) met the criterion for the maxi-

mum distance to the opposite wall (< 7 m). In many cas-

es, a single large window was placed on the shorter wall,

which limits the depth of daylight penetration and leads

to a requirement for constant use of articial lighting. The

key problem proves to be the uneven distribution of natural

light in the classroom space.

Variable ceiling height – variation in ceiling height

was recorded in only one classroom (BT04), where in the

98 Małgorzata Neumann, Adriana Krupa

Parameters / building data sheet

Criterion

requirements

BT01 BT02 BT03 BT04 BT05 BT06 BT07 BT08 BT09 BT10

ARCHITECTURE

Density

classroom area > 3 m

per child

2.58

(–)

2.80

(–)

3.03

(+)

3.30

(+)

2.35

(–)

2.66

(–)

2.74

(–)

2.35

(–)

2.86

(–)

3.13

(+)

Zoning

at least 4 different zones

present

(–) (–) (–) (+) (–) (+) (+) (–) (–) (–)

Spatial layout

open or semi-open activity

zones without significant

visual barriers

(–) (–) (–) (+) (–) (+) (–) (–) (–) (–)

Natural daylighting

window-to-floor ratio ≥ 1:5

and furthest point from window

≤ 7 m

1:4.6

distance from

the window:

6.23 m

(+)

1:2.6

distance from

the window:

7.32 m

(–)

1:4.7

distance from

the window:

8.02 m

(–)

1:4.3

distance from

the window:

6.2 m

(+)

1:4.4

distance from

the window:

9.62 m

(–)

1:4.1

distance from

the window:

8.7 m

(–)

1:4.6

distance from

the window:

9.6 m

(–)

1:5.6

distance from

the window:

8.7 m

(–)

1:5.3

distance from

the window:

6.5 m

(–)

1:6.7

distance from

the window:

7.8 m

(–)

Variable ceiling height

ceiling height difference ≥ 80 cm

over an area ≥ 2 m

(–) (–) (–) (+) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–)

Functional and visual

connection between

interior and exterior

view of a play/learning area

from the classroom;

one of the following design

treatment procedures

implemented: large glazing,

low sill, or direct outdoor

access

(+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (–) (+)

EQUIPMENT

Multi-functional

equipment

at least one item of adaptable

equipment with a positive

assessment by the caregiver

(–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–)

Equipment supporting

motor development

at least one item supporting

motor development with

a positive assessment of

the caregiver

(–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (–)

Presence of soft elements

soft elements present to

a degree that may influence

children (own assessment)

(–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (+) (+) (–) (+) (–)

Presence of wooden

elements

solid wood elements present to

a degree that may influence

children (own assessment)

(–) (–) (–) (–) (–) (+) (–) (–) (–) (–)

Table 2. Degree of compliance with parameters by the surveyed kindergartens (elaborated by M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

Tabela 2. Stopień spełnienia wybranych parametrów przestrzennych przez badane przedszkola (oprac. M. Neumann, A. Krupa)

Architectural standards of public kindergartens in Warsaw and supportive design for children’s development 99

Parameters / building data sheet

Criterion

requirements

BT01 BT02 BT03 BT04 BT05 BT06 BT07 BT08 BT09 BT10

INTERIOR DESIGN

Access to greenery

score in the upper half

of Likert scale

(≥ 2.5 pts)

3.25

(+)

3.5

(+)

1.5

(–)

(+)

2.5

(+)

2.5

(+)

Layout flexibility

score in the upper half

of Likert scale

(≥ 2.5 pts)

3.75

(+)

2.5

(+)

2.5

(+)

275

(+)

2.75

(+)

2.5

(+)

2.5

(+)

2.5

(+)

Spatial definition

score in the upper half

of Likert scale

(≥ 2.5 pts)

1.75

(–)

(+)

1.5

(–)

(+)

2.5

(+)

1.5

(–)

1.5

(–)

1.5

(–)

Attractiveness, cosiness

and “home-like”

atmosphere

score in the upper half of

Likert scale

(≥ 2.5 pts)

1.5

(–)

2.5

(+)

1.5

(–)

(+)

1.5

(–)

3.25

(+)

2.25

(–)

1.5

(–)

1.5

(–)

Balanced colour palette

score in the upper half

of Likert scale

(≥ 2.5 pts)

4.5

(+)

3.25

(+)

3.75

(+)

3.25

(+)

4.25

(+)

2.75

(+)

3.5

(+)

2.25

(+)

3.5

(+)

Number of criteria met

5/15 5/15 5/15 10/15 3/15 10/15 7/15 4/15 3/15 5/15

In some facilities, they are entirely absent (BT01, BT06,

BT08, BT10) or present as a single plant (BT05).

Layout exibility – Likert scale scores fall within the

range of 2.5–4 points, indicating fullment of the exibility

criterion in all analysed classrooms. Some teachers declare

periodic modications to the functional layout in order to

optimise and diversify the conduct of classes. It is worth

noting, however, that changes to the functional layout are

introduced exclusively by sta, whereas the literature holds

that active participation by children in adapting the space

should be possible.

Spatial denition – in the analysed classrooms, spatial

zoning is based primarily on the arrangement of furniture

and a carpet, with the infrequent use of typical dividing

elements such as curtains, shelving, or mobile partitions

– as recommended, inter alia, in the “Szkoła dobrze zapro-

jektowana” guide (Zarządzenie… 2021). Zones are also

not delineated by changes in colour or nish. Only three

kindergarten classrooms exceed the threshold value of 2.5

points on the Likert scale (BT04, BT06, BT07).

Attractiveness, cosiness and “home-like” atmosphere – the

adopted criterion was met in only three of the ten ana lysed

classrooms (BT02, BT04, BT06). The maximum score

achieved (3.25 points) indicates a generally low level of

realisation. In many cases, the interiors give the impression

of oce-like spaces, an eect reinforced by the presence of

suspended exposed grid ceilings with uorescent lighting.

Elements that build a domestic atmosphere, such as potted

plants or decorations, appear sporadically.

Balanced colour palette – the colour schemes of the an-

alysed kindergarten classrooms are generally muted, kept

in greys or pastels. Vivid colour accents appear typically on

one – at most two – surfaces and are balanced by a neutral

background; for example, the intensity of the oor colour is

softened by a grey carpet, light-coloured walls, ceiling, and

furniture in wood tones. An exception is classroom BT09,

which showed a lack of colour coherence between the fur-

niture, the carpet, and the wall decorations. In the remain-

ing kindergartens, parameter scores fall within the range

of 2.25 to 4.5 points, indicating a moderately high level of

criterion fullment.

Identification of gaps

and good practices

In the analysis of fullment of individual criteria, the

poorest performance relates to the equipping of the spaces.

The absence of multi-functional elements and equipment

supporting motor development may be a consequence of

the traditional model of preschool education, in which such

activity is conned to designated spaces such as gymna-

siums. In day-to-day practice, sta therefore do not per-

ceive a need for these elements to be present directly in the

kindergarten classrooms. Analysis of the materials used, on

the other hand, reveals a marked decit in natural elements

– particularly conspicuous is the absence of wooden oor-

ing or furniture. Surfaces made of synthetic materials pre-

dominate – and this applies to both hard elements and soft

elements such as poues, which are frequently covered in

impermeable, synthetic fabrics with an unpleasant texture.

100 Małgorzata Neumann, Adriana Krupa

The result is a general lack of material and tactile diversity.

The limited number of clearly dened relaxation areas may

be directly related to the low ratings of qualities such as at-

tractiveness, cosiness, and a homelike atmosphere. Despite

the presence of new furniture and a coherent, balanced co-

lour scheme, the overall aesthetic eect is sometimes rem-

iniscent of oce spaces. This impression is heightened by

the presence of uorescent lighting and standard suspended

exposed grid ceilings, which further weaken the sense of

cosiness and individual character of the interior.

In spatial terms, the analysed classrooms display a high

degree of similarity. They have been designed according to

a repeating scheme: rectangular in plan, with an equal ceil-

ing height and a similar functional layout. The space has

not been clearly divided into zones – beyond what results

from the arrangement of furniture – and this limits the pos-

sibilities for varied perception and use of the interior. There

is also a lack of more subtle means of organising space,

such as changes in colour scheme, materials, or sectional

ceiling lowering.

Signicant deciencies were also noted in the design of

natural daylighting, despite its important direct eect on

the wellbeing of users and its indirect eect on many other

assessed parameters – from the perception of spaciousness,

through the shaping of the functional layout, to the percep-

tion of the interior’s colour scheme and the relationship

with nature outdoors. Some of the studied kindergarten

classrooms, though designed in compliance with applicable

law

, do not provide optimal lighting conditions for chil-

dren. The provision for a minimum window-to-room area

ratio of 1:8 seems insucient for kindergarten classroom

space. There is also a lack of standards addressing uniform,

multidirectional daylighting and the appropriate orientation

of windows in relation to the cardinal directions.

Although the analysis conducted reveals primarily sig-

nicant deciencies, examples of good practice are also

discernible, as are areas to which designers and decision-

makers have paid appropriate attention. One positive aspect

is the provision of visual and functional contact with the

surrounding greenery, achieved through the use of low-set

windows and direct access to a patio – a solution found in

almost all studied classrooms located on the ground oor.

Although actual use of these exits depends on the internal

regulations of individual facilities, the very possibility of

their use represents a valuable potential. Another favour-

ably assessed aspect is the exibility of the spatial layout.

Thanks to their dimensions, the classrooms enable a variety

of organisational arrangements, aording the possibility of

adaptation to changing needs. Although the current number

of children – most commonly the maximum of 25 – may

be considered high, in the context of the ongoing demo-

graphic decline, it is anticipated that these spaces will in fu-

ture be better suited to smaller groups, which will translate

into more comfortable conditions for use. Also worthy of

note is the selection of interior colour schemes. The use of

subdued tones creates a calm, neutral background that does

Current regulations specify a minimum window-to-room area ra-

tio of 1:8 and a required insolation period of at least 3 hours on equinox

days, between 08:00 and 16:00 (§ 57 i § 60, Rozporządzenie… 2002).

not compete with children’s activity, while at the same time

promoting concentration and a sense of aesthetic order.

Conclusions

On the basis of the research conducted, it may be stated

that newly built kindergartens in Warsaw are characterised

by a similar, though relatively low, level of fullment of the

selected spatial parameters. Kindergarten classrooms dis-

play a high degree of homogeneity – they have comparable

potential but also recurring limitations, which result from

the design, material, and layout solutions adopted.

The few dierences between individual classrooms

emerge

primarily in the manner of their spatial congura-

tion. Geometry and daylighting have a considerable eect

on the comfort of use and the atmosphere inside. The more

varied the shape of the classroom, the greater its potential

for creating distinct and functional zones. In the few cases

where the rectangular oor plan was abandoned, the space

was more clearly dened, which facilitated the organisation

of children’s activities. The niches that arise are naturally

adapted as relaxation zones or reading corners. Dierences

in ceiling height play a similar role. This subtle architec-

tural intervention supports the intuitive allocation of func-

tions to specic areas within the interior. The location of

windows and the positioning of adjacent terraces are also

of signicance – they aect not only access to daylight but

also the manner of arranging the walls on the interior side,

and thus the exibility of classroom use.

The economic factor has a primary inuence on deci-

sions regarding the nishing and equipping of kindergarten

classrooms, and is clearly discernible in many of the studied

projects. Within a constrained budget, there is little room

for unconventional solutions, and practical considerations

tend to take precedence over how a material is perceived by

children. A case in point is the widespread use of linoleum,

which is characterised by its low cost and lack of main-

tenance requirements. Wooden ooring is no longer used,

although experience from kindergartens of the 1960s – in

which parquet ooring was commonly used – shows that

despite the passage of time and intensive use, this materi-

al retains its durability and unique character. Moreover, it

contributes to the creation of a warm, domestic atmosphere

in the interior. A similar signicance may be attributed to

the use of high-quality wooden and upholstered furniture,

which would additionally serve to organise and zone the

space. The incorporation of even one prominent nishing

feature made from natural materials, such as built-in furni-

ture, wall cladding, or timber ooring, can enhance the vi-

sual character of an interior while substantially improving

the quality of the user experience.

The quality of designed natural daylighting in kindergar-

ten classrooms appears to be an urgent concern. In many

existing projects, these solutions give rise to serious mis-

givings, clearly indicating the need for more ambitious

le gal regulations guaranteeing children appropriate condi-

tions for daily functioning and development. These regula-

tions should above all specify a greater minimum share of

glazed surfaces relative to oor area (e.g., in a ratio of 1:4)

and require even distribution of windows so that natural

Architectural standards of public kindergartens in Warsaw and supportive design for children’s development 101

light can reach the entire classroom

. These requirements

would also need to be supplemented by an obligation to use

eective solar shading systems and to design appropriate

– ideally intelligent – articial lighting that would work in

harmony with daylight. Similar regulations are needed re-

garding room height. The minimum value specied by cur-

rent regulations – 2.5 m – seems insucient in relation to

the typical area of kindergarten classrooms. Fortunately, in

practice, designers and investors often demonstrate greater

spatial sensitivity and appropriately adjust interior height to

their scale and function.

Summary and recommendations

The kindergarten classroom is a spatial unit of unusual

scale and character. Although formally classied as a sin-

gle room, its size – up to 80 m

– and multi-functionality

indicate the need for a more complex design approach than

it is the case for other rooms of simpler function. The anal-

ysis conducted once again underlines the need for a more

conscious and careful creation of kindergarten spaces by

designers, investors, and kindergarten management. It is

Interestingly, highly precise and high-quality guidelines similar

to those proposed here appeared in a pre-war document on the arrange-

ment of kindergartens (Mączeński 1935).

worth noting, however, that most of the identied issues are

systemic in nature and could be mitigated through amend-

ments to, or greater specication of, building regulations.

Key actions appear to be needed in three areas: more varied

spatial conguration, conscious selection of materials, and

ensuring high-quality environmental conditions, particular-

ly with respect to natural daylighting.

In the face of the challenges of contemporary early

child hood education and the developmental needs of the

youngest users, an approach is advocated that integrates

functional, aesthetic, and emotional aspects in the design

as inseparable elements of a well-planned space. Broad-

er research encompassing a greater number of projects is

necessary, enriched by a qualitative component and the in-

volvement of a larger and more varied group of experts.

A valuable continuation of the current research would be an

analysis of more recently built kindergartens designed us-

ing the objectives from the “Szkoła dobrze zaprojektowa-

na” guide (Zarządzenie… 2021). The conclusions drawn

from a comparison of the inuence of such publications on

the quality of kindergarten spaces could contribute to the

formulation of specic guidelines for systemic changes.

Translated by

Magdalena Śmieja

Acknowledgements

This article was written as part of the “Experimental Research Project”

course at the Doctoral School at the Faculty of Architecture of the Warsaw

University of Technology.

References

Acer, Dilek, Gözen Göksu, Zehra Saadet Fırat, Hatice Kefeli, and Büşra

Aslan. “Eects of a Redesigned Classroom on Play Behaviour among

Preschool Children.” Early Child Development and Care 186, no. 12

(2016): 1907–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2015.1136999.

Berris, Rebecca, and Evonne Miller. “How Design of the Physical En-

vironment Impacts on Early Learning: Educators’ and Parents’ Per-

spectives.” Australasian Journal of Early Childhood 36, no. 4 (2011):

102–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/183693911103600414.

Brown, James G., and Charles Burger. “Playground Designs and Pre-

school Children’s Behaviors.” Environment and Behavior 16, no. 5

(1984): 599–626. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916584165004.

Faber Taylor, Andrea, and Currie Butts-Wilmsmeyer. “Self-Regulation

Gains in Kindergarten Related to Frequency of Green Schoolyard

Use.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 70, no. 2 (2020): 1–29.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101440.

Gaines, Kristi S., and Zane D. Curry. “The Inclusive Classroom: The

Eects of Color on Learning and Behavior.” Journal of Family and

Consumer Sciences Education 29, no. 1 (2011): 46–57.

Hanták, Jakub, and Danica Končeková. “Positive Eects of Wood in

Vorarlberg’s (Austria) Timber Kindergartens.” Architecture Papers of

the Faculty of Architecture and Design STU 28, no. 3 (2023): 36–49.

https://doi.org/10.2478/alfa-2023-0018.

Knauf, Helen. “Visual Environmental Scale: Analysing the Early Child-

hood Education Environment.” Early Childhood Education Journal

47 (2019): 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-018-0914-x.

Legendre, Alain. “Interindividual Relationships in Groups of Young

Children and Susceptibility to an Environmental Constraint.” En-

viron ment and Behavior 31, no. 4 (1999): 541–57. https://doi.org/

10.1177/00139169921972191.

Maxwell, Lorraine E. “Multiple Eects of Home and Day Care Crowd-

ing.” Environment and Behavior 28, no. 4 (1996): 494–511. https://

doi.org/10.1177/0013916596284004.

Mączeński, Zdzisław, ed. Przedszkola. Teren – urządzenia terenowe – bu -

dynek i jego wykonanie – urządzenia pomieszczeń. Ministerstwo Wyz -

nań Religijnych i Oświecenia Publicznego, 1935.

Mohidin, Hazrina Haja Bava, Alice Sabrina Ismail, and Hidayati Binti

Ramli. “Eectiveness of Kindergarten Design in Malaysia.” Proce-

dia Social and Behavioral Sciences 202 (2015): 47–57. https://doi.

org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.207.

Moore, Gary. “Design Environments for Young Children: Empirical Find-

ings and Implications for Planning and Design.” In Children and

Young People’s Environments: Keynote Addresses and Selected Pa-

pers from the Children’s Issues Centre Fourth Child & Family Poli-

cy Conference, 28–30 June 2001, edited by Megan Gollop and Jaleh

McCormack. Children’s Issues Centre, 2002.

Moore, Gary. “Eects of Spatial Denition of Behaviour Settings on

Children’s Behavior: A Quasi-Experimental Field Study.” Journal

of Environmental Psychology 6, no. 3 (1986): 205–31. https://doi.

org/10.1016/S0272-4944(86)80023-8.

Moore, Gary, and Takemi Sugiyama. “The Children’s Physical Environ-

ment Rating Scale (CPERS): Reliability and Validity for Assessing

the Physical Environment of Early Childhood Educational Facilities.”

Children, Youth and Environments 17, no. 4 (2007): 24–53. https://

doi.org/10.1353/cye.2007.0023.

102 Małgorzata Neumann, Adriana Krupa

Streszczenie

Standardy architektoniczne przedszkoli publicznych w Warszawie a projektowanie wspierające rozwój dzieci

Środowisko i przestrzeń, w których dzieci spędzają większość czasu, odgrywają kluczową rolę w ich rozwoju emocjonalnym, społecznym i poznaw-

czym. Chociaż autorzy licznych opracowań teoretycznych podkreślają znaczenie przestrzeni w edukacji wczesnoszkolnej, nadal brakuje dogłębnych

badań dotyczących rzeczywistej jakości architektury współczesnych przedszkoli w Polsce.

Celem autorek artykułu była ocena jakości przestrzeni współczesnych sal przedszkolnych w Warszawie w oparciu o parametry uznane przez badaczy

za sprzyjające rozwojowi i dobremu samopoczuciu dzieci. W pierwszym etapie pracy przeprowadziły one szczegółowy przegląd literatury przedmiotu

w celu zidentykowania piętnastu cech jakościowych przestrzeni. Drugi etap to badania dziesięciu sal przedszkolnych w nowo wybudowanych przed-

szkolach publicznych w Warszawie. Rezultatem opisanych prac była ocena stopnia implementacji założeń teoretycznych w badanych obiektach, gdzie

średnio zostało spełnionych 5,7 na 15 parametrów. Przeprowadzone badania można traktować jako pierwszy krok w kierunku identykacji luk projek-

towych oraz zarysowania kierunków potencjalnych zmian systemowych, które mogą mieć znaczenie dla praktyki projektowej w skali całego kraju.

Słowa kluczowe: architektura przedszkolna, projektowanie dla dzieci, środowisko edukacyjne, edukacja wczesnoszkolna

Rentzou, Konstantina. “The Quality of the Physical Environment in Pri

vate and Public Infant/Toddler and Preschool Greek Day-Care Pro-

grammes.” Early Child Development and Care 184, no. 12 (2014):

1861–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2014.891991.

Read, Marilyn A., Alan I. Sugawara, and Jeanette A. Brandt. “Impact of

Space and Color in the Physical Environment on Preschool Children’s

Cooperative Behavior.” Environment and Behavior 31, no. 3 (1999):

413–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/00139169921972173.

“Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 25 sierpnia 2017 r.

w sprawie sposobu prowadzenia przez publiczne przedszkola, szkoły

i placówki dokumentacji przebiegu nauczania, działalności wycho-

wawczej i opiekuńczej oraz rodzajów tej dokumentacji.” Dz.U. 2017,

poz. 1646. Accessed June 5, 2026, at https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/

DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20170001646.

“Rozporządzenie Ministra Infrastruktury z dnia 12 kwietnia 2002 r.

w sprawie warunków technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać bu-

dynki i ich usytuowanie.” Dz.U. 2002 nr 75, poz. 690 ze zm. Ac-

cessed June 5, 2026, at https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.

xsp?id=WDU20220001225.

“Rozporządzenie Ministra Pracy i Polityki Socjalnej z dnia 26 września

1997 r. w sprawie ogólnych przepisów bezpieczeństwa i higieny pra-

cy.” Dz.U. 1997 nr 129, poz. 844. Accessed June 5, 2026, at https://

isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU19971290844.

“Rozporządzenie Ministra Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji z dnia

7 czerwca 2010 r. w sprawie ochrony przeciwpożarowej budyn-

ków, innych obiektów budowlanych i terenów.” Dz.U. 2010 nr 109,

poz. 719 ze zm. Accessed June 5, 2026, at https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/

isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20230000822.

Şahin, B. Ece, and Neslihan Dostoğlu. “Changeable Designs in Preschool

Education Environments: Supporting Sensory Development and

Creativity.” European Journal of Education Studies 2, no. 8 (2016):

84–108. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.163788.

Sano, Henry. Creating Environments for Young Children. School of De-

sign, North Carolina State University, 1995.

Schutte, Anne R., Julia C. Torquati, and Heidi L. Beattie. “Impact of

Urban Nature on Executive Functioning in Early and Middle Child-

hood.” Environment and Behavior 49, no. 1 (2017): 3–30. https://doi.

org/10.1177/0013916515603095.

Terczyńska, Ewa. “Współczesne przedszkole – aranżacja dziecięcego śro-

dowiska przestrzennego.” Builder 287, no. 6 (2021): 38–41. https://

doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.8831.

“Ustawa z dnia 7 lipca 1994 r. Prawo budowlane.” Dz.U. 1994 nr 89,

poz. 414. Accessed June 5, 2026, at https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/

DocDetails.xsp?id=wdu19940890414.

“Zarządzenie nr 645/2021 Prezydenta m.st. Warszawy z dnia 4 maja

2021 r. w sprawie wprowadzenia w m.st. Warszawa standardów

architektonicznych i funkcjonalnych dla szkół podstawowych i ze-

społów szkolno-przedszkolnych.” Załącznik nr 1. Accessed June 5,

2026, at https://bip.warszawa.pl/web/prezydent/-/zarzadzenie-nr-

645-2021-z-2021-05-04-924614.

Standardy architektoniczne przedszkoli publicznych w Warszawie a projektowanie wspierające rozwój dzieci

Małgorzata Neumann, Adriana Krupa

doi:10.37190/arc260208

Streszczenie