Identification of spatial features that may support the integration of students with autism spectrum disorder in primary schools. Case studies

Klaudyna Mentel, Zbyszko Bujniewicz, Luís Miguel Moreira Pinto

doi:10.37190/arc250107

Abstract

The number of students with autism spectrum is increasing in schools. Students with autism may need therapeutic support and appropriate adaptation of the school environment. This paper presents a review of literature to identify environmental components that may support the functioning of individuals with autism in schools, as well as an attempt to identify these components in the educational clusters of five selected Danish schools with special classes for students on the autism spectrum. Selected research techniques were applied, such as document analysis, description, explanation, and interpretation.

Effective intervention for a child with autism spectrum disorder should always include both social (supportive) and spatial (architectural) dimensions. Consequently, the selection of facilities for the study was based on findings from the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education report, which highlights that Danish schools have the highest rate of enrolling students with special needs in separate, non-inclusive classes within mainstream schools, and all selected primary schools were rebuilt or expanded after 2018.

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1(81)

Klaudyna Mentel*, Zbyszko Bujniewicz**,

Luís Miguel Moreira Pinto***

Identification of spatial features that may support the integration

of students with autism spectrum disorder in primary schools:

case studies

DOI: 10.37190/arc250107

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

Abstract

The number of students on the autism spectrum in mainstream schools is increasing. These students may require therapeutic support and appropriate

adjustments to the school environment. The aim of this study is to identify spatial features that may aect the functioning of students on the autism

spectrum in primary schools.

A literature review was conducted to identify spatial features that may positively inuence students on the spectrum. Five schools within the Dan-

ish education system were selected for our case studies. This system is characterized by a high inclusion rate of individuals with autism into special,

non-integrative classes in mainstream primary schools. The selection criteria for the facilities were based on data from the international report by the

European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education.

The case study of ve selected Danish primary schools identies spatial features that can support the integration of students on the autism spectrum

in mainstream schools. The selected designs implemented rules, sequencing with consideration of the physical properties of zones, and spatial divisions

for social activities.

Key words: autism, architecture, design

Introduction

The built environment exerts a dual inuence on indi-

viduals, with both positive and negative eects, a phenom-

enon particularly pronounced in neurodivergent popula-

tions, including individuals with autism spectrum disorder.

Environmental factors have the potential to either exacer-

bate the frequency of maladaptive behaviours or attenuate

them. Sensory processing dysfunctions may signicantly

hinder a child’s capacity to participate in daily activities

such as learning, play, and social interaction. Consequently,

a well-designed, supportive school environment – encom-

passing both its physical and social dimensions – should

be meticulously tailored to foster the holistic development

and well-being of every student (Schaer 2006).

The aim of the study is to identify selected spatial cha-

racteristics, derived from a review of the literature, that

support the functioning of individuals with autism. In the

studied schools, students attend special classes but are en-

couraged to participate in broader school activities. Spatial

features were selected according to the literature research.

In the hosting schools, students attend separated special

classes but are encouraged to participate in school life. Stu-

dents have the opportunity to be educated in general class-

es by attending certain lessons or workshops for a specied

number of hours per week and during extracurricular ac-

tivities organized in shared spaces.

In the selected schools, most of the spatial features de-

scribed in the literature can be identied. To better understand

* ORCID: 0000-0001-6399-2711. Faculty of Architecture, Sile-

sian University of Technology, Poland, e-mail: klaudyna.mentel@polsl.pl

** ORCID: 0000-0001-6716-8594. Faculty of Architecture, Sile -

sian University of Technology, Poland.

*** ORCID: 0000-0002-9201-0294. Faculty of Engineering, De-

partment of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University Beira Inte-

rior, Portugal.

72 Klaudyna Mentel, Zbyszko Bujniewicz, Luís Miguel Moreira Pinto

the needs of students with autism, the authors aimed to

extract lessons from exemplary school environments and

apply them in other contexts. Dierences are observed

in the methods of implementation and the extent of their

application. In the educational clusters, there are spatial

divisions where students can spend time according to their

needs for social interaction; there are multiple spaces ded-

icated to restrain oneself and for calming down and for

spending time in smaller or larger groups. Not all schools

have a clear division into separate codes for specic ac-

tivity zones.

Methods

The study involves analysing case studies of facilities us-

ing criteria selected by experts. The research scope includes

a review of literature to identify environmental compo-

nents that may support the functioning of individuals with

autism in schools, as well as an attempt to identify these

components in the educational clusters of ve selected Dan-

ish schools with special classes for students on the autism

spectrum. Selected research techniques were applied, such

as document analysis, description, explanation, and inter-

pretation (Niezabitowska 2014).

Eective intervention for a child with autism spectrum

disorder should always include both social (supportive)

and spatial (architectural) dimensions. Consequently, the

selection of facilities for the study was based on ndings

from the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive

Edu cation report, which highlights that Danish schools

have the highest rate of enrolling students with special

needs in separate, non-inclusive classes within mainstream

schools (Københavns Kommune 2023), and all selected

primary schools were rebuilt or expanded after 2018.

Research background

According to information published by the Social-og

Boligstyrelsen; 2.5% of Danish school children from grades

0 to 9

have been diagnosed with autism spectrum disor-

der, 12% of vulnerable students, and 1.4% of non-vulner -

able students. Research ndings published in 2023 indi-

cate that 17% of diagnoses in the age group 0–17 years

involve both autism spectrum disorder and developmental

disability, and 83% involve only autism spectrum disorder.

These data come from hospital diagnoses, so the number

of individuals with autism in schools may be higher (So-

cial-og Boligstyrelsen 2023).

The Danish parliament passed the Inclusive Education

Act for students on the autism spectrum in 2012. In the

2008/2009 school year, 14.3% of all primary school stu-

dents received special education. Niels Egelund, along with

a team of education researchers, consulted on changes re-

lated to the inclusion of students with special needs in

mainstream schools, setting an inclusion rate of 96%.

In Denmark, the mandatory curriculum is implemented within

primary and lower secondary schools, covering students aged 5 to 15.

For individuals with autism, this framework can be adapted based on

their individual needs.

This benchmark was aligned with the inclusive policies of

Sweden and Norway and the country’s economic situation

following the 2008 crisis (Ministeriet for Børn og Under-

visning 2013). In 2021, a report on student experiences of

inclusion was commissioned by the Children’s Education

Council. According to the report, more than half of the

students felt that teachers devoted more time to some stu-

dents than others, 64% of students did not speak during

lessons, and 32% of students considered changing classes

or schools (Rådet for Børns Læring 2021). The inclusion

rate has returned to the pre-2012 level, and the authori-

ties no longer maintain such a strict policy. The concept

of inclusion is being replaced by a hybrid approach called

“mellemformer”, which combines methods from special

and general education (Weirsøe 2021).

Inclusive education is a crucial element shaping Danish

schools (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclu-

sive Education 2020/2021). Models are being sought to in-

clude some students with autism/ADHD into mainstream

schools. The way inclusion is implemented in mainstream

schools can vary depending on the student’s needs. The

aim is to strengthen the individual student’s ability to nav-

igate and function in social communities and contexts.

Over time, this may lead to full inclusion in a regular class

(Long, Guo 2023).

State of research

The developmental presentation and diagnosis of children

with autism are based on the fth edition of the Diagnos-

tic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5),

with the European equivalent being the International Clas-

sication of Diseases 11

Revision (ICD-11). The ICD-11

manual describes the diagnosis of individuals with autism

under the code 6A02.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized

by a spectrum of manifestations. The term “spectrum” refers

to the wide range of diculties, which vary signicantly

from person to person. These include profound challenges

in daily functioning as well as subtle dierences in environ-

mental perception (Lord et al. 2020). Comorbid conditions

aect 70–80% of individuals on the autism spectrum and

may include sensory diculties, ADHD, anxiety disor-

ders, mood disorders, and epilepsy (Simono et al. 2008).

Individuals on the spectrum can be expressed as hy-

persensitivity or hyposensitivity to sensory stimuli. This

condition can manifest itself through atypical interest in

sensory aspects of the environment, such as negative re-

actions to certain sounds or textures, or visual fascination

with light or movement. An individual with autism may

experience extreme anxiety with small changes in their

environment or daily schedule. Individuals with autism

often have xed interests of unusual intensity, adhere in-

exibly to routines, or exhibit ritualized patterns of be-

haviour (World Health Organization 2022). Fred Volkmar

and Brian Reich ow, a

specialist in neurodevelopmental

disorders and co-author of the Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) diagnostic manual

published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA),

described eective therapeutic strategies for individuals

 Identicationofspatialfeaturesthatmaysupporttheintegrationofstudentswithautismspectrumdisorderinprimaryschools 73

on the autism spectrum. These strategies include recom-

mendations for the therapeutic environment for individuals

who have problems with attention, sequencing, organiza-

tion, and understanding social situations. Volkmar and Rei-

chow particularly emphasizes learning in context, using

visual aids, schedules, and structured work environments

(Volkmar, Reichow 2013).

To determine the spatial features that may aect the

functioning of children with autism, a scoping review was

conducted using the method developed by Hilary Arksey

and Lisa O’Malley (Arksey, O’Malley 2005). Databases

such as Web of Science, Scopus, and Science Direct were

searched. A total of 2033 articles related to the phrase “au-

tism, design, environment” were found. The scope of the

search was narrowed by applying additional inclusion cri-

teria. Thirteen peer-reviewed articles containing theories

on the design of primary schools were selected for analy-

sis. The results of the scoping review were structured, and

the selected spatial features were assigned to three groups:

rules, activities, sequences.

Spatialsequencing was described in the context of uti-

lizing the anity of individuals with autism for routine

and predictability. Sequencing requires that areas be or-

ganized logically, based on typical planned and stable use

of space. Implementing these assumptions into space can

be achieved by creating an identication system for zones,

which can help with spatial orientation and limit the oc-

currence of undesirable behaviours (Mostafa 2018; Irish

2022; McAllister, Sloan 2016; Kanakri et al. 2017).

Activityzones are essential for individuals with autism,

as they provide clear associations between specic areas

and designated activity. They divide the space into areas

such as quiet zones for solitude, observation areas, and in-

tegration zones for small groups in quiet or noisy areas.

Spatial divisions do not have to be strongly demarcated

but can be dened by furniture arrangement, oor covering

dierences, level changes, and lighting variations (Mosta-

fa 2018; Irish 2022; McAllister, Sloan 2016; Kanakri et

al. 2017).

Key rules in designing for individuals with autism in-

volves the use of patterns and solutions that minimize sen-

sory overload. This includes implementing colour schemes,

reducing reverberation, preventing glare, and avoiding dis-

ruptive lighting eects (Nair et al. 2022; Shareef, Farivar-

sadri 2018).

Appropriately designed spaces can support therapeutic

goals in line with the concept of a therapeutic environment

and promote the physical and mental health of individuals

within them. Spaces can contribute to sensory overload,

feelings of confusion, disarray, stress, or hyperactivity. As

evidenced by the literature review, undesirable eects of

using school spaces can be minimized.

Case studies

The case study involves identifying the features of

shared spaces within educational clusters in ve schools in

Copenhagen. The selected schools are mainstream institu-

tions where education for students on the autism spectrum

is organized in special classes.

In Denmark, each municipality maintains a register of

facilities that support special education, categorized by

type of disability. The chosen schools are listed by the

Copenhagen Municipality as institutions accommodat-

ing students with autism. Additionally, children attending

these schools can benet from the municipality’s program

for organizing children’s leisure time, known as KKFO –

Københavns Kommunes Fritidsordning.

Depending on the internal organization of the institu-

tion, activities are conducted either inclusively or within

the framework of special education. During extracurricular

activities, children have the opportunity to use the school’s

infrastructure and become familiar with it (Københavns

Kommune 2024).

Rosenvængets Skole

The school is located in the Østerbro district, designed

by architects Nøhr and Sigsgaard and Sweco, with land-

scape architecture by LYTT and Kragh and Berglund.

For the new school, which was completed in 2023, two

buildings with a total area of 4,900 m

were adapted, with

a budget of 120 million DKK. The school accommodates

120 students with normal abilities but various functional

disorders within the autism spectrum and ADHD (Nøhr &

Sigsgaard 2024; Rosenvængets Skole 2024).

Special classes are organized around a common space

(Fig. 1A), where clearly designated areas serve xed and

unchanging functions. The divisions of activities exhibit

signicant spatial variability. There are sheltered zones

for escape and calming down (Fig. 1P), partially sheltered

zones, areas for spending time in small groups in semi-

open spaces (Fig. 1K), table zones (Fig. 1F), as well as rest

zones with loungers. Activity zones are clearly separated

by solid or semi-transparent walls. Background colors are

of low intensity, with activity zones marked by higher in-

tensity colours. Matte, non-reective materials are used.

The space is bright, illuminated by natural light.

Dyvekeskolen

The school is located in Amager and was designed by

SWECO. It was renovated in 2015, with an investment of

118 million DKK covering 10,640 m². The school has 667

students, with 32 in special classes for category 3 for kids

with autism spectrum from zero to 9

grade, with plans to

expand the educational oer for students with autism to 72

students (Sweco 2024; Dyvekeskolen 2024).

The spatial layout clearly separates quiet and noisy in-

tegration zones. Classrooms are organized along corridors

(Fig. 1B), which have been widened in some areas to cre-

ate common spaces for small group activities (Fig. 1G).

Corridors are colour-coded for identication. Larger group

activity areas are located in common spaces accessible to

students from all educational clusters along the corridors

(Fig. 1L). The school uses light colours with low intensity.

Spaces in front of classrooms are naturally lit through sky-

lights above integration zones (Fig. 1G). Non-reective,

sound-absorbing materials are used. The spatial design pre -

vents changes in arrangement.

74 Klaudyna Mentel, Zbyszko Bujniewicz, Luís Miguel Moreira Pinto

spaces for small group integration (Fig. 1M). Some furni-

ture is mobile. There is limited exibility in space arrange-

ment and color codes are used to dene zones.

SluseholmenSkole

The school is located between the Sjællandsbroen and

Ved Stigbordene districts. It was completed in 2024, de-

signed by JJW ARKITEKTER A/S, with landscape archi-

tecture by Thing Brandt Landskab ApS. The school, de-

signed for 840 students, has an area of about 12,500 m

The program includes special classes, KKFO, a recrea-

tio nal club, a sports hall, and a culinary school (JJW

ARKITEKTER 2024; Sluseholmen Skole og Fritid 2024).

The building has a terraced layout, with educational

spaces blending with the exterior. Educational clusters are

arranged around three main atriums, dividing the school

into smaller sections. Students can move between indoor

educational spaces and school gardens connected to wa-

ter features. Common areas are divided into activity zones

tailored to student age (Fig. 1D). Areas for small group ac-

PederLykkeSkole

The school is located in the Amager district and was

built in 1974, renovated by EKJ in cooperation with Nøhr

& Sigsgaard and Sweco and LYTT for landscape archi-

tecture. The school, completed in 2020, involved the ren-

ovation of 12,000 m

, with a new building of 2,000 m

and a budget of 180 million DKK. The school has 695

students, including 26 with autism spectrum and ADHD,

with plans to accept more students with special needs (JJW

ARKITEKTER 2023; Peder Lykke Skole 2024).

The school’s functional layout resembles a small school

town. One design objective was to ensure uniform natural

lighting. Therefore, glazed walls open to the surrounding

greenery, and where this was not possible, glass roofs were

used. Classrooms adjoin common areas serving as indoor

covered courtyards (Fig. 1C). Various activity zones are de-

signed within the clusters. Students can spend time in quiet,

isolated spaces to avoid sensory overload. Quiet areas are

designed in niches of dierent sizes (Fig. 1S). The common

area features mega-furniture providing partially sheltered

Fig 1. Common areas in educational clusters of mainstream schools with classes for individuals on the autism spectrum

(elaborated by K. Mentel based on: Nøhr & Sigsgaard 2024; Sweco 2024; JJW ARKITEKTER 2023; 2024; Sweco 2021)

Il. 1. Części wspólne w klastrach edukacyjnych szkół ogólnodostępnych z klasami dla osób ze spektrum autyzmu

(oprac. K. Mentel na podstawie Nøhr & Sigsgaard 2024; Sweco 2024; JJW ARKITEKTER 2023; 2024; Sweco 2021)

 Identicationofspatialfeaturesthatmaysupporttheintegrationofstudentswithautismspectrumdisorderinprimaryschools 75

tivities are designed with various types of tables in open

spaces or niches (Fig. 1I, N). Quiet zones are designed in

dierent types of niches, some providing complete isolation

(Fig. 1T). Natural materials and corresponding color codes

are used. Finishing materials reduce glare and reverb eect.

Lundehusskole

The school is located in the Nørrebro-Bispebjerg dis-

trict and was built in 1943. It was renovated in 2020 by

KANT Arkitekter and Nøhr og Sigsgaard, with landscape

Colour Award for her work on the school’s color scheme.

The school area expanded from 10,230 m

to 17,500 m

after the renovation, with a budget of 180 million DKK.

The school has 523 students, with special classes for 6–10

students with autism. Ninety students with autism spec-

trum and ADHD attend the special classes, with plans to

accept more students with special educational needs (Swe-

co 2021; Lundehusskolen 2024).

A designated area for special classes was created. Com-

mon spaces within all clusters follow the same design prin-

ciples. Activity zones within clusters are clearly separated

into quiet and noisy activities. Various free-time areas are

designed, such as niches with acoustic panels. Children

can use these spaces individually (Fig. 1U) or in small

groups (Fig. 1J). A consistent color-coded system aids in

navigation and area recognition. Most zones, including ed-

ucational clusters, have matte oor nishes to minimize

light reection and aid concentration. Walls are covered

with materials that reduce echo, improving acoustic com-

fort and reducing noise.

Results

In the selected schools, a similar approach to shaping

common spaces has been observed. The designed activity

zones cater to the diverse needs of students during their

free time. The schools feature highly escape zones for soli-

tude and calm. Small niches with opaque partitions provide

spaces for hiding and calming down (Fig. 1P). There are

areas for spending time with a friend and participating in

group and school community activities, characterized by

higher sensory stimulation. These spaces are constructed in

xed arrangements (Figs. 1F, G, J). In some schools, des-

ignated seating areas with various types of tables are set

apart from the general movement space (Figs. 1C, H). The

design of the spaces indicates a need for many intermediate

forms, such as when a child wants to be alone but cannot be

completely out of sight for safety reasons. Hence, compart-

mentalization is introduced through semi-transparent parti-

tions that shield but do not isolate (Fig. 1A). Window niches

provide seating areas where one can retreat while still main-

taining contact with social situations inside or focus on the

view outside (Fig. 1E). Besides classrooms, play zones are

designed for use alone or in small groups (Figs. 1D, O).

In educational clusters, spatial sequencing is imple-

mented as a code in common spaces in terms of materials,

colours, and furnishings. This characterizes specic activ-

ity zones by introducing repetitive physical properties of

the zones or their components. Schools feature recurring

elements in activity zones. In Rosenvængets Skole, dier-

ent colour codes identify areas for small group activities

(Fig. 1F) and solitary activities (Fig. 1P). The proportions

of space and lighting correlate with the ways of spending

free time in Dyvekeskolen (Figs. 1G, L, R). In Sluseholmen

Skole and Lundehusskole, spatial sequencing is linked to

the design of niches in xed structures (Figs. 1E, J, T, U). In

all selected schools, built-in furniture is designed in com-

mon spaces, limiting the possibility of changes (Figs. 1B,

I, K, P, U). In Peder Lykke Skolen and Sluseholmen Skole,

megafurniture is used, which can be moved (Figs. 1D, M).

In common spaces, loud and quiet activity zones alternate.

In most cases, there is no clear sensory gradation between

them. These zones are part of the common space of educa-

tional clusters, with the gaps between them lled with neu-

tral sensory spaces. The congestion of neutral zones, which

serve as transitional spaces, decreases proportionally to the

number of activity zones introduced.

Attempts have been made to establish clear boundar-

ies for activity areas in the common spaces of the selected

schools. Each school implements these boundaries dier-

ently. Spatial divisions are not always sharp. In Rosenvæn-

gets Skole, clear divisions are marked by built-in furniture,

with each zone having a dierent spatial characteristic.

There are table activity zones, isolation zones, step-like

arrangements, and rest zones with mattresses shaped to

t. Each has a distinct colour characteristic. The recogni-

tion of individual activity areas is not always emphasized

by colour but can be highlighted by the spatial layout of

the building. In Dyvekeskolen, three corridors with class-

rooms connect with a transverse one containing loud activ-

ity zones. Quiet activity zones are located in skylit areas

adjacent to classroom corridors. A similar solution is found

in Sluseholmen Skole, where common areas of education-

al clusters adjoin covered atriums and external terraced

gardens. The diverse spatial layout of the building forms

the basis for creating characteristic activity zones, comple-

mented by niches in xed structures and megafurniture. All

schools use colours of reduced intensity, following estab-

lished patterns in the literature. Wall and ceiling nishing

materials reduce echo, and matte ooring prevents light re-

ections. Common spaces in selected schools are evenly lit

with natural light, utilizing systems that reduce glare.

Summary

Providing a choice of environments is essential. Every

child is unique, and the availability of diverse spaces with

varying scales and characteristics (quiet/loud, bright/dim,

open/closed, indoors/outdoors) is crucial. Quiet spaces

oer opportunities for relaxation, while moderately noisy

areas allow children to gradually adapt to external stimuli.

Small, enclosed spaces can serve as refuges from sensory

overload, whereas open rooms encourage free exploration

and interaction.

Natural light, with options for adjustment, supports vi-

sual comfort and reduces discomfort caused by light sen-

sitivity. Children with autism often prefer passive partici-

pation in group activities, observing peers from a distance.

76 Klaudyna Mentel, Zbyszko Bujniewicz, Luís Miguel Moreira Pinto

Designing spaces that enable observation without requiring

direct engagement can support their social development

and facilitate gradual integration.

Conclusions

The case study analysis of ve selected Danish primary

schools identies spatial characteristics that can support

the integration of students with autism spectrum disorder

in mainstream schools.

The selected designs incorporate principles such as

sequencing that considers the physical characteristics of

zones and spatial divisions tailored to social activities. De-

sign assumptions for therapeutic environments for individ-

uals on the autism spectrum, identied through literature

reviews, are being implemented in contemporary school

projects with an inclusive character.

This case study can be considered a pilot study. The

results from examining a larger number of buildings may

eventually be used to develop specic design guidelines.

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 Identicationofspatialfeaturesthatmaysupporttheintegrationofstudentswithautismspectrumdisorderinprimaryschools 77

Streszczenie

Identykacja cech przestrzeni, które mogą wspomagać integrację uczniów z autyzmem w szkołach podstawowych.

Studium przypadków

W szkołach zwiększa się liczba uczniów ze spektrum autyzmu. Uczniowie z autyzmem mogą potrzebować wsparcia terapeutycznego oraz odpo-

wiedniego dostosowania środowiska szkolnego. Celem autorów artykułu była identykacja cech przestrzeni, które mogą mieć wpływ na funkcjono-

wanie uczniów ze spektrum autyzmu w szkole podstawowej.

W trakcie prac, na podstawie badań literatury przedmiotu, określono cechy przestrzeni, które mogą pozytywnie wpływać na uczniów ze spek-

trum. Do studium przypadków wybrano pięć szkół w duńskim systemie edukacji. Charakteryzuje się on wysokim współczynnikiem włączenia osób

z autyzmem do klas specjalnych, nieintegracyjnych w ogólnodostępnych szkołach podstawowych. Kryterium wyboru obiektów zostało określone na

podstawie danych międzynarodowego raportu European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education.

Przedstawione studium przypadków pięciu wybranych duńskich szkół podstawowych pozwoliło zidentykować cechy przestrzeni, które mogą

wspomagać integrację uczniów ze spektrum autyzmu. W wybranych projektach wprowadzono zasady, sekwencjonowanie z uwzględnieniem właści-

wości zycznych stref oraz podziały przestrzeni służących różnym rodzajom aktywności społecznej.

Słowa kluczowe: autyzm, architektura, projektowanie