Oskar Hansen’s Open Form in the context of Karl Popper’s concept of open society and architectural realities in Poland before 1989

Artur Zaguła, Miłosz Gortyński

doi:10.37190/arc250408

Abstract

This article presents the mutual relations between Oskar Hansen’s Open Form and Karl Popper’s open society theoretical concepts. Their analysis and comparison serve both to broaden knowledge about architectural theories and to reveal the broader philosophical context of Hansen’s concept.

The article also presents the realities of implementing architectural projects in Poland before 1989 and the influence of political conditions on the possibility of implementing Open Form ideas in design practice.

2025

4(84)

Artur Zaguła*, Miłosz Gortyński**

Oskar Hansen’s Open Form in the context of the Open Society concept

by Karl Popper and the architectural realities in Poland before 1989

DOI: 10.37190/arc250408

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

Abstract

In this article, the authors examine the relationship between Oskar Hansen’s concept of Open Form and Karl Popper’s idea of the Open Society. Their

analysis and comparison aim not only to deepen the understanding of the development of modernist concepts in architecture and urbanism, but also to

show that the theories emerging from dierent premises, assumptions and circumstances can be united by certain shared fundamental ideals and values.

The hermeneutic and historical-interpretive methods allowed us to recognize material and social realities in the complex context of the post-World War II

era. In addition, a case study of one of Oskar Hansen’s completed housing developments allowed verication of the theoretical basis of Open Form with

an attempt to materialize it. The analysis of both theoretical concepts made it possible to formulate the basic values linking them: individual freedom;

countering authoritarianism; social participation; exibility and adaptation; and rationalism. In conclusion, it was pointed out that both the Open Form and

the Open Society are attempts to heal our common environment, as a vision grounded in a sincere and profound belief in humanity. This perspective is

especially vital today, as we increasingly live in ideological bubbles and focus more on what divides us rather than on what unites us.

Key words: Open Form, modernist architecture, Open Society, continuous linear system

Introduction

Oskar Hansen, an extraordinary Polish architect and ar-

chitectural theorist, together with Karl Popper, a famous

philosopher and political theorist, may at rst sight seem to

be gures from two dierent realms. They came from dif-

ferent cultural and ideological backgrounds, what is more,

they were specialists in their own specic professional

elds. However, both the concept of the Open Form by Os-

kar Hansen (1922–2005) and the idea of the Open Society

by Karl Popper (1902–1994) combine some fundamental

ideals and values. This connection is worth acknowledging,

also because Hansen emphasizes that the foundation of ar-

chitectural concepts is the idea itself

(Włodarczyk 2009,

* ORCID: 0000-0002-5617-9041. Institute of Architecture and

Town Planning, Lodz University of Technology, Poland, e-mail: artur.

zagula@p.lodz.pl

ORCID: 0000-0002-5719-880X. Doctoral Candidate at Lodz Uni -

versity of Technology, Poland.

In a conversation with Wojciech Włodarczyk, the following sen-

tences are uttered: There is no space without philosophy. […] The history

21, 29). Previous researchers of Hansen’s creativity used

to link his concepts

with, for example, Sartre’s existential

Marxism (Ockman 2014, 33), and Hansen himself pointed

out Erich Fromm as a source of inspiration

(Ockman 2014,

55–58; Hansen 2005, 9, 10, 11, 14, 60, 71).

The combination of the idea of the Open Form and the

Open Society has been noticed as a potential possibility

of art teaches that conscious architects implemented philosophical pro-

grams with their designs. […] To sum up, in our team the most important

person was not the one who drew the project, but the one who brought

the idea to the table during the conversation (Włodarczyk 2009, 148).

Hansen clearly indicates that his architectural practice was uncondition-

ally related to theoretical reection.

Hansen himself has always and repeatedly emphasized that the

concept of the Open Form was his own idea and was not inspired by ear-

lier theories. He conrms this in an interview with Włodarczyk: Wojciech

Włodarczyk: Almost everyone talked about Open Form in the 1950s, even

if it wasn’t called that: Olle Baertling, Umberto Eco, Yona Friedman,

Espace Group... Oskar Hansen: I must confess that I simply didn’t know

about all this. I thought this was my discovery (Włodarczyk 2009, 142).

In the book Zobaczyć świat [Seeing the World] prepared by Han-

sen, the name of Erich Fromm appears several times, and in the author’s

essay a longer fragment of To Have or Be by the same author is quoted.

90 Artur Zaguła, Miłosz Gortyński

(Stanek, van den Heuvel 2014, 25), but so far it has not been

seriously developed. Only Eeva-Liisa Pelkonen noted in her

article, in the section titled “Open Form – Open Society?”

as follows: Hansen’s opposition between open and closed

recalls Karl Popper’s notion of “open” versus “closed so-

ciety” put forward in The Open Society and Its Enemies

(1945), which contrasts humanism marked by freedom of

thought and action with the lack thereof within abstract and

depersonalized systems; the former called for human en-

gagement rather than passive acceptance of the given situ-

ation (Pelkonen 2014, 145).

Therefore, the analysis of the relationship between the

Open Form and the Open Society and the conclusions

drawn from it can enrich our understanding of both archi-

tecture and social theories. Especially since residential ar-

chitecture, which was mainly practiced by Hansen, is by its

very nature a social activity and at the same time entangled

in politics. Both the historical and interpretive method will

be helpful in this regard, as it allows for the recognition of

material and social reality in a complex context. Especially

since, as Karl Popper wrote: To sum up, there can be no his-

tory of “the past as it actually did happen”; there can only

be historical interpretations, and none of them nal; and

every generation has a right to frame its own. But not only

has it a right to frame its own interpretations, it also has

a kind of obligation to do so; for there is indeed a pressing

need to be answered (Popper 1966, vol. 2, 268). While this

inherently subjective nature of historical interpretation must

be constrained through data triangulation, it also allows for

a broader perspective on the subject of research. For simi-

lar reasons, Gadamer’s hermeneutic method will be useful,

understood as a theory of interpretation of works of culture

and art (Zwoliński 2005, 253; Gadamer 1993). Finally, we

will use a case study, the analysis of which will provide the

data needed to verify the hypotheses.

Open Form and Open Society

First of all, it should be noted that Oskar Hansen most

likely did not know Karl Popper’s theory when he created his

own theory. Popper’s work was not translated into Polish or

published until 1987. The rst Polish edition appeared in the

so-called second circulation and the ocial edition comes

only from 1993. Therefore, when asked whether Hansen’s

intention in implementing the Open Form in the modernist

architecture of Poland were to lead the local population to-

wards an Open Society as envisioned by Popper – democrat-

ic, pluralistic, decentralized, free from the desire for histor-

ical justication and capable of controlling its own political

forces without bloodshed (Popper 1993, 292, 293) – the an-

swer should be negative. Hansen could not have known the

English version of Popper’s text because he did not speak

that language. This was one of the many reasons why he did

not remain in London (Włodarczyk 2009, 43; Ockman 2014,

41), despite being an important member of Team 10. It seems,

therefore, that the similarity between the Open Form and the

Open Society in Polish architecture was an accidental, ironic

brotherhood of thought between two men with opposing but

interdependent views. It was also a convergence of views

of the European intellectual elites of the time, as Hansen

himself recalled in relation to his speech at the CIAM (Con-

grès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne) congress in

Otterlo in 1959: Of course, there was a certain atmosphere,

it had to exist, because an artist does not grow out of stone,

but out of mood (Włodarczyk 2009, 30).

Being aware of the circumstances outlined above, let us

attempt to identify the fundamental ideas and values under-

lying both attitudes:

1. Individual freedom to make decisions within society.

Both Popper and Hansen pay particular attention to this

aspect of both social and material reality – built space. An

Open Society is one in which everyone has the right to make

their own decisions and the opportunity to improve their

situation, for example, through social advancement, both

horizontally and vertically (Baranowski 2009, 72). Popper

clearly emphasizes the contrast with a “closed society”, in

which the community is treated as a single body with one

collective will that directs the actions of all its members,

depriving them of individual freedom. Hansen, in his found-

ing text entitled Forma Otwarta [Open Form], writes: Does

“TO BE OR NOT TO BE” depend on “Hamlet” today?

We are afraid of decisions made for us. We don’t trust each

other. Closed form – the decision is made for me – I am

standing next to the action. It is impossible to nd your-

self here – your SELF. All these are someone’s souvenirs,

someone’s emotions, someone’s estates and houses (Hansen

1959, 5). Therefore, he shares the way of thinking contained

in Popper’s concept. However, this does not mean that the

political views of both protagonists are identical. Hansen,

a liberal Marxist and supporter of a socialist society, agrees

with Popper, an anti-fascist and anti-communist, supporter

of liberal democracy.

2. Counteracting authoritarianism in society and archi-

tecture.

In fact, Popper’s entire book The Open Society and Its

Enemies is directed against authoritarianism. He believed

that the main cause of most forms of authoritarianism and

totalitarianism was a theory he called historicism. He ar-

gued that it was based on erroneous assumptions about

the nature of scientic law and prediction. He considered

Plato’s theory to be the foundation of this type of views,

and Georg Hegel and Karl Marx to be the foundations of

modern historicism based on Plato. The analyzes of their

views in subsequent volumes of the book were intended by

Popper to serve as arguments to oppose the authoritarian

tendencies of the “closed society”. Hansen – although he

believed in the ideas of socialism – opposed authoritarian

tendencies both in social matters and as an architect. His

opposition to socialist realism had a dual character, both

political and aesthetic. On the one hand, he did not agree

with the bureau cratic and corrupting nature of the au-

thoritarian power of the communists, as well as with the

“closed forms” of buildings constructed during this pe-

riod. His attitude towards modernism in architecture and

urban planning was similarly unorthodox. The theory of

Open Form focuses architecture on the user and departs

from the orthodoxy of the modern movement proposed

by Le Corbusier. Open Form can be described as an art

form dened by the user, not the creator (Sprin ger 2022).

The role of the architect should, according to Hansen,

Oskar Hansen’s Open Form in the context of the Open Society concept by Karl Popper

it. Its diverse individuality, along with its randomness and

activity, will become the wealth of this space – its co-partic-

ipant (Hansen 1959, 5). As we know today, these were the

utopian dreams of the creators of the late avant-garde; the

audience never truly engaged in such activities to the ex-

tent that was envisioned. However, at the theoretical level,

Hansen is clearly a supporter of including architecture us-

ers (Hansen 1959, 5) or art recipients in creative activities.

As we can see, both authors believed in the decentraliza-

tion of power and the importance of active participation of

individuals. Citizens’ involvement in shaping society and,

within it, co-creating art and architecture was a key element

of both the Open Society and the Open Form.

4. Flexibility and adaptation.

Popper believed that society should be open to change

and criticism, which allows for continuous evolution and

im provement of social institutions. Since no one holds

a monopoly on the truth, citizens should develop critical

think ing to engage meaningfully in discussions, especially

public ones, about laws, acts and decisions made. This fos-

ters a exible and adaptive framework for the development

of the Open Society.

The Open Form theory advocates the concept of art as

a process in which exibility and variability in works are

encouraged (Fig. 2). Hansen wrote about it: Being a com-

position of spatial subtext – it will become a multi-layered,

constantly living phenomenon. In relation to the conven-

tion of a closed composition, which relies mainly on the

craftsmanship of the crafted object, the convention of an

open composition will consist in action characterized by

a “passepartout” of changes taking place in space. It will

be the art of events. Time works more strongly than it did

so that we can continue to trust only the unchanging, once

established relationship of elements (Hansen 1959, 5). Han-

sen’s theory had a signicant impact on Polish concepts

of environment, happening and performance in the 1960s.

be limited to creating a “perceptual background”, so that

architecture becomes a tool that can be managed and adapt-

ed to the needs of users. His participation in the work of

Team 10 and his symptomatic presence in 1959 in Otterlo,

when CIAM was closed down, demonstrate the revisionist

and anti-authoritarian nature of his activities as an architect.

Taken together, both concepts can be seen as striving to

create a space – physical and social – in which individuals

have greater freedom and opportunity to express themselves

(Fig. 1).

3. Participation as an element of the social and creative

process.

This idea results directly from the values shared by Pop -

per and Hansen analyzed above. Popper emphasized the

role of citizens in shaping politics and society through ac-

tive participation and criticism. The Open Society by its

nature assumes the participation and cooperation of free

citizens. This is possible thanks to the existence of a space

of tolerance, freedom and responsibility. Only in such con-

ditions can there be a variety of forms of cooperation be-

tween citizens and the implementation of various, often

fun damentally dierent concepts and lifestyles. The Open

So ciety assumes citizens’ capacity for self-organization and,

at the same time, their responsibility for what happens in the

public space. This requires the presence of civic organiza-

tions that either cooperate with public authorities or oper-

ate independently. This is the essence of liberal democracy,

which Popper strongly advocated.

In his concept, Hansen emphasized the importance of

user participation in the process of creating and modifying

space. Referring to art in his programmatic text, he wrote:

It will create a sense of need for each of us, help us dene

and nd ourselves in the space and time in which we live.

It will be a space consistent with our complicated and yet

unknown psyche. This will happen because we will exist as

organic elements of art. We will walk in it, not celebrate

Fig. 1. Przyczółek Grochowski Housing Estate in Warsaw, 1970s. The trade pavilion – note the free interpenetration of spaces and partial,

characterized by artistic values, roofing providing shelter from the sun and rain exposure (photos by A. Zaguła)

Il. 1. Osiedle Przyczółek Grochowski w Warszawie, lata 70. XX w. Pawilon handlowy – zwraca uwagę swobodne przenikanie się przestrzeni oraz

częściowe, charakteryzujące się walorami artystycznymi, zadaszenie zapewniające schronienie przed działaniem słońca i deszczu (fot. A. Zaguła)

92 Artur Zaguła, Miłosz Gortyński

It seems that a rationalist approach also characterizes

Hansen’s beliefs. The last sentences of his programmatic

text read as follows: Open form is not just a speculative

invention of our times. It is primarily a post-observation

conclusion of existing systems (Hansen 1959, 5). This may

be due to the fact that he shares the view that the basis of

rational reasoning is based on arguments and observations.

However, according to Popper’s classication, it is closer to

“non-critical rationalism”. All his energy was directed to-

wards the future, towards building a new, egalitarian, ideal

society. Behind this was a utopian belief in human possi-

bilities of creating “paradise on earth”, but also in the new

system of socialism. It was supposed to enable the imple-

mentation of the Linear Continuous System (LSC), a new

settlement system created by Hansen. In a 1968 discussion,

Hansen stated: It seems to me that the LSC is very realistic

and I believe that it will be implemented. First of all, because

it corresponds to the common interests of society and the

government. On the one hand, the LSC, having a huge mar-

gin of exibility, is based on the irrational features of life,

on the other hand, it allows you to shape matter much more

rationally than in traditional structures of human habitats

(Szczerski 2009, 80). However, for many dierent reasons,

this utopian vision had no chance of being realized in the

Polish People’s Republic. Another argument that Hansen’s

rationalism is “non-critical” is the language he uses both as

a writer and a speaker. It is an extremely persuasive lan-

guage, as Jacek Friedrich writes: However, Oskar Hansen’s

It was fully expressed in his competition entry for the in-

ternational monument to the victims of fascism in Aus-

chwitz-Birkenau (together with Jerzy Jarnuszkiewicz and

Julian Pałka, in 1957).

5. Rationalism as the main value in society and archi-

tecture.

For Popper, critical rationalism is the basis and most im-

portant feature of the Open Society as opposed to the irra-

tionality of the Closed Society. In his book, Popper denes

rationalism as […] readiness to listen to critical arguments

and to learn from experience. It is fundamentally an attitude

of admitting that “I may be wrong and you may be right,

and by an eort, we may get nearer to the truth.” It is an

attitude which does not lightly give up hope that by such

means as argument and careful observation, people may

reach some kind of agreement on many problems of impor-

tance […] (Popper 1966, vol. 1, 225). This does not mean,

however, that Popper supports every type of rationalism.

He distinguishes two types of it – “critical rationalism” and

“non-critical rationalism” or “consistent”. The former is an

advantage of the citizens of the Open Society, the latter is its

radical form, which Popper denes as irrational faith in rea-

son (Popper 1993, 243). The former is intersubjective in

nature, the latter is largely doctrinaire and is often the basis

for creating utopian visions of an “earthly paradise”. This is

what prompts Popper to criticize him, because he believes

that the basis of rationalist politics is the belief that it is im-

possible to create heaven on earth (Popper 1993, 271).

Fig. 2. Przyczółek Grochowski Housing Estate in Warsaw, 1970s. The gallery building manifesting the Open Form. Its author, Oskar Hansen,

designed the structure to allow its inhabitants to move freely through the block, choosing any staircase according to their preference

(photos by A. Zaguła)

Il. 2. Osiedle Przyczółek Grochowski w Warszawie, lata 70. XX w. Budynek galerii ucieleśnia Otwartą Formę. Jego autor, Oskar Hansen,

zaprojektował konstrukcję tak, aby umożliwić mieszkańcom swobodne poruszanie się po bloku, wybierając dowolne schody według

własnych preferencji (fot. A. Zaguła)

Oskar Hansen’s Open Form in the context of the Open Society concept by Karl Popper

statements are particularly worth considering due to at least

three features: rstly, Hansen manifests in them,

to a greater

extent than most of his writing colleagues, the desire to cre-

ate holistic approaches, methodical, systemic; secondly – his

publications are of an extremely persuasive nature, you can

read in them a kind of sense of mission, which, of course,

characterizes the modern movement in general, but in Han-

sen’s works it reaches a particularly high level; thirdly, and

nally – Hansen, like few others, tries to impose his own

terms of discourse on the recipient in his statements: hence

the strong appearance of rationality, objectivity, and science

accompanying statements that are otherwise very subjective

and arbitrary (Friedrich 2009, 47, 48).

As we can see, although both of them referred to a ratio-

nalist view of the world, there are clear dierences in its in-

terpretation. While Popper represents what he calls “critical

rationalism”, Hansen is a representative of a “non-critical

rationalist”.

To sum up, it should be said that despite clear dierenc-

es in worldview, there are many ideas and values that are

shared by both theorists. It is worth noting that both in Pop-

per’s Open Society and Hansen’s Open Form, what mat-

ters most is the human being as an individual who needs

a piece of common space in society. Although Open Form

was an ideal used in art and design in the post-war period,

its main goal was not necessarily social progress, but rather

the development of a decentralized type of democracy im-

plemented by each person using each public space.

Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin

as an example of the implementation

of the Open Form

The housing estate designed and built by Zoa Garliń-

ska-Hansen (1924–2013) and Oskar Hansen in the years

1964–1970 is a material example of the implementation

of the Open Form in architecture described above (Fig. 3).

Therefore, this architectural implementation is a case study

that allowed us to verify the credibility of the ideas de-

scribed above. The estate was intended to reconcile a sense

of individuality and belonging to a community.

The ideal of democratization of living space and individu-

alistic approach was realized by surveying future users (Filas

2009, 103, 107, 108), who could express their own opinions,

needs and proposals. This gave the designers the opportunity

to plan the apartments to meet their desires and expectations.

Zoa and Oskar Hansen embodied the principles of Open

Form in architecture, enabling the adaptation of living spaces

to various family models, needs and preferences. As a result,

a characteristic feature of the designed buildings emerged,

i.e., the asymmetrical location of balconies, which reected

the personalization of interior spaces. The principles of Open

Form were usually implemented by Hansen within the detail-

ing of the buildings. There were variations in the size and lo-

cation of balconies, entrances and passageways, for example,

in the “Wężowce” [“Serpents”] as well as staircases (Fig. 4).

In the Słowacki Housing Estate, such details included also

loggias on the south side, which residents could paint in any

color they wished, or pantries protruding from the north side,

projecting beyond the wall line, both enlarging the space of

small kitchens and creating a spatial, rhythmic, artistic accent

in the façade of the blocks (Szczerski 2009, 86, 89).

Oskar Hansen’s ideal of free transformation of space and

forms, thanks to which citizens could enjoy the opportunity

to jointly shape their places from the bottom up, respond-

ing to the needs of society, was also embodied in the LSM

Housing Estate (Fig. 5). Hansen incorporated a space called

the “amphitheater” or Theater of Open Form, which was an

articial mound lled with platforms, benches and tables.

In the Hansens’ opinion, the function of this space was to

foster interpersonal relationships (individual in communi-

ty), without suggesting a spatial dominant, so that everyone

would sit and look in their preferred direction. This proves

the Hansen’s ideological hostility towards the traditional hi-

erarchy, including those embedded in architectural design.

The Linear Continuous System, which was the urban

plan ning proposal of Hansen, was materialized in the design

of the Juliusz Słowacki estate, composed as longitudinal,

ribbon-shaped blocks called “Wężowce” [“Serpents”] and

point blocks called “Betki”. According to the design, the

“Wężowce” were to surround the estate from the northern

side, separating it from the outer parts of the city, empha-

sizing the autonomy and isolation of the space. The slal-

oming shape of the residential block was an Open Form

experiment, the aim of which was to search for architectural

solutions that would decentralize and democratize, while

also providing asylum to the residents. “Wężowce” marked

a trail among bushes and trees as well as mounds of earth

coming directly from the pits dug for the construction of

the foundations of the estate (Fig. 6). Despite his atheistic

beliefs, Hansen was convinced of the need to preserve this

land as a substance spiritually coherent with the place where

the architecture was conceived.

It should be noted that Hansen was a specialist in the

eld of sculptural form and it was on this foundation that

Fig. 3. Plan of the Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin, 1964–1970.

1 – Co-operative headquarters, 2 – nursery, 3 – square with church

(year of construction 1998), 4 – open Form Theatre, 5 – retail pavilions,

6 – primary school, 7 – kindergarten, P – car park

(drawing by M. Gortyński)

Il. 3. Plan osiedla im. Juliusza Słowackiego w Lublinie, 1964–1970.

1 – siedziba spółdzielni, 2 – żłobek,

3 – plac z kościołem (rok budowy 1998), 4 – Teatr Formy Otwartej,

5 – pawilony handlowe, 6 – szkoła podstawowa, 7 – przedszkole,

P – parking (rys. M. Gortyński)

94 Artur Zaguła, Miłosz Gortyński

Fig. 4. Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin, 1964–1970. The façade of the blockhouse. Note the asymmetrical arrangement of balconies

(photos by A. Zaguła)

Il. 4. Osiedle im. Juliusza Słowackiego w Lublinie, 1964–1970. Fasada bloku. Zwraca uwagę asymetryczny układ balkonów (fot. A. Zaguła)

Fig. 5. Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin, 1964–1970. Block located nearby T. Zana Street.

One can grasp an attempt to adapt and individualize the space according to its inhabitants’ needs (photos by A. Zaguła)

Il. 5. Osiedle im. Juliusza Słowackiego w Lublinie, 1964–1970. Blok położony w pobliżu ul.T. Zana.

Widać tu próbę adaptacji i indywidualizacji przestrzeni zgodnie z potrzebami mieszkańców (fot. A. Zaguła)

he developed his concept of Open Form. He regarded ar-

chitecture as a tool for encoding Open Form into the mass

consciousness of the society of which he was a part. It is

signicant that playgrounds, designed as an integral part of

the Słowacki Estate, represent a style that allows potential

users to dene, interpret and use the space freely. These are

not conventional playgrounds; rather, they are functional

sculptures with no predetermined purpose. According to

Hansen, their role was to encourage children to invent their

own games, using simple, primitive objects (Fig. 7).

Oskar Hansen’s Open Form in the context of the Open Society concept by Karl Popper

Fig. 6. Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin, 1964–1970. The “wężowiec” block enveloping the north side of the Słowacki Estate.

The building appears to be a continuous architectural body, formed in harmony with the natural contours of its surroundings (photos by A. Zaguła)

Il. 6. Osiedle im. Juliusza Słowackiego w Lublinie, 1964–1970. Bryła „wężowca” otaczająca północną stronę osiedla.

Budynek sprawia wrażenie ciągłej bryły architektonicznej, ukształtowanej w harmonii z naturalnymi konturami otoczenia (fot. A. Zaguła)

Fig. 7. Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin, 1964–1970. One of many playgrounds built according to Oskar Hansen’s design,

manifesting the principles of Open Form (photos by A. Zaguła)

Il. 7. Osiedle im. Juliusza Słowackiego w Lublinie, 1964–1970. Jeden z wielu placów zabaw zrealizowanych według projektu Oskara Hansena,

ucieleśniających zasady Formy Otwartej (fot. A. Zaguła)

The analysis of the Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in

Lublin clearly reveals an attempt to implement the princi-

ples of Open Form. All of the aforementioned ideas – indi-

vidual freedom; counteracting authoritarianism; participa-

tion; exibility and adaptation; rationalism – underpinned

this project. Unfortunately, these positive intentions often

ended in failure, whether due to the utopian thinking on the

part of the designers, economic and executive reasons, or,

nally, the communist government, which had the power

to thoroughly change or even completely undermine the

most well-intentioned premises. The appearance of the es-

tate reveals the shortcomings of the architects’ design. For

instance, the residents received balconies without any pro-

tection against weather conditions, which is why many of

them added self-constructed, makeshift covers and shelters.

Moreover, the apartments designed on the basis of surveys

96 Artur Zaguła, Miłosz Gortyński

ultimately ended up in the hands of entirely dierent occu-

pants, which was a consequence of socialist social policies

implemented within the context of an extremely inecient

centrally planned economy.

Discussion

The bitter truth behind the idea of Open Form is that it

can only serve its true purpose if the people who use the

space created on its principles share its ideas. This only hap-

pens in a society created in Hansen’s imagination and not

in reality. The examples of the Open Space in places such

as Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin were used in

unfortunate ways, which were not predicted by their design-

ers. The decentralized amphitheatre was quickly adopted by

local people to become the improvised space to smoke and

drink. The playgrounds for children were full of concrete

structures, which posed a risk of falls and injuries during

play. Even the ats in the Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate

in Lublin, which were personally designed for specic fam-

ilies, after architects interviewed them about their needs and

preferences, were ultimately occupied by completely dier-

ent people.

According to the authors’ belief, the idea of the Open

Society presents progress as the natural destiny of every

society. Zoa and Oskar Hansen certainly dreamed of cre

ating a humanistic, progressive society in post-war Poland

through architectural design. Unfortunately, the revolution-

ary nature of the political system they lived under, aected

the way they were thinking about the citizens and their place

in the state. The linear system was a materialization of an

openly authoritarian way of thinking about the surrounding

world. Popper held humanistic views, however, they were

based on a traditional set of principles derived from Christi-

anity. Therefore, his view of progress, or to be precise evo-

lution, was quite dierent. It actually exists, as it exists in

the aging Hansen’s architecture today.

It is interesting that the architecture and urban planning

proposed by Hansen, retained their decentralized character

up until the political transformation in Poland in 1989. This

was not because of the societal freedom or subjectivity, but

rather due to the authoritarian tendencies of the authorities,

who refused to permit the construction of the church that

the community had demanded. Today, in the central part of

the Juliusz Słowacki Housing estate, a new church, repre-

senting a traditional theocratic hierarchy, rises above the

linear buildings and trees. This situation demonstrates the

paradox of Hansen’s theory. The authors of the article For-

ma Otwarta jako passe-partout patriarchatu? [Open Form

as a passe-partout of patriarchy] wrote: “As is well known,

Fig. 8. Juliusz Słowacki Housing Estate in Lublin, 1964–1970. Other examples of the playgrounds manifesting the Open Form ideals

central to their designer’s concept (photo by A. Zaguła)

Il. 8. Osiedle im. Juliusza Słowackiego w Lublinie, 1964–1970. Inne przykłady placów zabaw ucieleśniających ideały Formy Otwartej,

kluczowe dla koncepcji ich projektanta (fot. A. Zaguła)

Oskar Hansen’s Open Form in the context of the Open Society concept by Karl Popper

the theory of Open Form postulates, among other things,

democracy, egalitarianism, “hierarchylessness”, non-dog-

ma tic, decentralization and asymmetry.” The problem,

how ever, is that the structure of this theory is antinomic to

these postulates [...]. For, in our opinion, the structure of

this theory is by no means “decentralized.” On the contrary

– it is precisely centralized (albeit unconsciously) along the

axis of symmetry creating schematic, “black and white”

di visions and “totalizing” simplications. At the center of

this structure stands a “cathedral” from which the theorist

de livers arbitrary sermons sealed with dogmatic exclama-

tions (Klimaszewski, Kozak, and Malec 2009, 133, 134).

The problem is also that the radical and unrealistic, but still

in teresting and valuable ideas of Zoa and Oskar Hansen

were inadequate in relation to a society that went through

chaos and uncertainty in the cruelest and most devastating

conict in history.

Today, people who at least once in their lifetime had

a chance to live in spaces designed by Zoa and Oskar

Hansen generally do not express overly enthusiastic ap-

preciation for them. Instead, they talk harshly about the

narrowness, darkness, rough surfaces and little to no ther-

mal insulation. Flats become dangerously warm in sum-

mer and unbearably cold in winter due to the shape and

size of windows, thickness of the walls and lack of ther-

mal modernization, postponed for decades. Entire genera-

tions have been raised on the unsafe concrete playgrounds

(Fig. 8). One could probably argue that the very people

in Poland for whom Zoa and Oskar Hansen dedicated

their architectural and artistic legacy were not ready – or

perhaps not yet mature enough – to fully embrace or un-

derstand it.

Conclusion

The question is: what common value connects ideals

such as Karl Popper’s Open Society and Oskar Hansen’s

Open Form? It is important to note that what matters most

in both of these concepts is the human being as an indi-

vidual requiring a share of common space within society.

Even though Open Form was an ideal primarily applied to

arts and design in the post-war era, its main goal was not

necessarily social progress in the traditional sense, but rath-

er the advancement of a decentralized type of democracy,

one exercised by each human being using a public space.

Open Form could be also understood in a more personal or

private context, as demonstrated by Zoa and Oskar Han-

sen in their wooden house in Szumin. Although the living

space was not particularly large, it was designed to allow

for exible re-organization, in response to changing life

situations.

In the end, we cannot help but recognise that both Open

Form and the Open Society, as ideals, respond to what ev-

eryday life truly demands: a vision for healing our shared

environment, grounded in a deep and sincere belief in hu-

manity. Today, we are in a position to evaluate whether the

Modernist, democratic and decentralized vision created

by architects in the 1960s served its purpose and to what

extent. And this history brings an important context to ar-

chitecture as a cultural phenomenon, the Open Society as

a philosophical current and Open Form as a design ideal,

all interconnected. This reection is especially important

now, as we increasingly live in ideological bubbles, pay-

ing less and less attention to what unites us than to what

divides us.

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98 Artur Zaguła, Miłosz Gortyński

Streszczenie

Forma Otwarta Oskara Hansena w kontekście koncepcji społeczeństwa otwartego według Karla Poppera

i realia architektoniczne w Polsce przed rokiem 1989

W artykule przedstawiono wzajemne relacje między koncepcjami teoretycznymi Formy Otwartej Oskara Hansena i społeczeństwa otwartego

Karla Poppera. Ich analiza i porównanie mają zarówno służyć poszerzeniu wiedzy na temat rozwoju modernistycznych koncepcji w architekturze

i urbanistyce, jak i pokazać, iż wychodzące z różnych przesłanek, założeń i okoliczności teorie łączą pewne fundamentalne ideały i wartości. Metody:

hermeneutyczna i historyczno-interpretacyjna pozwoliły na rozpoznanie rzeczywistości materialnej i społecznej w złożonym kontekście czasów po

II wojnie światowej. Dodatkowo studium przypadku jednego ze zrealizowanych osiedli mieszkaniowych Oskara Hansena pozwoliło na werykację

teoretycznych podstaw Formy Otwartej z próbą jej materializacji. Analiza obydwu teoretycznych konceptów pozwoliła na sformułowanie pod-

stawowych wartości je łączących: indywidualnej wolności; przeciwdziałania autorytaryzmowi; partycypacji społecznej; elastyczności i adaptacji;

racjonalizmu. W konkluzji wskazano, że zarówno Forma Otwarta, jak i społeczeństwo otwarte to próby uzdrowienia naszego wspólnego otoczenia,

jako wizja oparta na prawdziwej i głębokiej wierze w ludzkość. Jest to tym ważniejsze, że żyjąc obecnie w ideologicznych bańkach, mniej uwagi

poświęcamy temu, co nas łączy, niż temu, co nas dzieli.

Słowa kluczowe: Forma Otwarta, architektura modernistyczna, społeczeństwo otwarte, linearny system ciągły