Research through chromatic design: supporting learning and well-being of children on the autism spectrum

Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

doi:10.37190/arc250313

Abstract

This article explores research through chromatic design as a means of supporting learning and well-being of children on the autism spectrum. The study investigates how color and chromatic strategies in architectural design can create more supportive environments for autistic children, examining the relationship between color perception, sensory processing, and spatial comfort. The research presents findings on design interventions that enhance learning outcomes and overall well-being for children with autism.

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2025

3(83)

Anna Jaglarz*, Berkay Turgut**

Research through colour-based design:

Supporting the learning and well-being of children with autism

DOI: 10.37190/arc250313

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

Abstract

Planning an educational environment dedicated to children with autism presents a signicant challenge for designers. The appropriate colour

arrangement of classroom interiors can inuence, shape, and control their behaviour, activities, learning processes, skill development, and acqui-

sition of experiences. Furthermore, it can enhance the eectiveness and productivity of their actions. It may also contribute to ensuring protection

and safety, as well as comfort and well-being in the spaces where children spend their daily lives. Numerous studies emphasize that the colours of

educational environments have physiological, emotional, and cognitive eects on students, which is particularly relevant when designing interiors for

educational institutions dedicated to children with cognitive disorders. Appropriate colours can have a signicant impact on their interaction with the

environment, which is often limited or impaired. The aim of the present study was to explore and expand the scientic foundations for the selection

of colour schemes in educational environments designed for children with neurodevelopmental disorders, including children with autism spectrum

disorder (ASD). The research process employs a literature review method, analyzing and reviewing scientic sources related to the application of

colours in educational spaces and environments dedicated to individuals with autism. Additionally, the study utilizes survey methodology and the

“Research Through Design” approach, integrating design activities into the research process. A crucial source of knowledge is the stimulus material

created by the designers, which facilitates the acquisition of new insights into the needs, preferences, and expectations of autistic children in their

educational environment.

Key words: architecture, research through design, colour perception, autism-friendly classroom, well-being in learning spaces

Introduction

Ergonomic interior design ensures human health, physical

condition, mental well-being, and social interactions. A cru-

cial aspect of interior design is analyzing and controlling

the psycho-physical eects of a given space on its users.

The interior environment can inuence moods, behaviours,

activities, productivity, and overall well-being. A specic

interior can have either a positive or negative impact on its

users; therefore, it is essential to examine the factors that

may benet specic users in particular spaces. Interior de-

sign involves selecting and arranging various elements

such

as forms, lines, divisions, textures, colours, and lighting.

Among these, colours hold special signicance as they de

ne spatial diversity, help dierentiate individual elements,

highlight dierent zones, emphasize divisions, and create

a specic mood, climate, and atmosphere within the space.

Properly planning a colour-based design concept is crucial,

especially when the users of a given space include individ-

uals with special needs, such as those with cogni

tive im-

pairments (Nair et al. 2022). Findings from previous studies

suggest that scientists and designers should pay more atten-

tion to the interiors where autistic children and individuals

with psychological disorders reside, including those with

cognitive processing diculties. Aisha Issa Al-Badrani and

Reham A. Sanad (2022) emphasize that appropriate colours

can signicantly inuence their interaction with the envi-

ronment, which is often limited or impaired.

Designing an educational environment for children with au -

tism presents a major challenge for designers. A well-structured

* ORCID: 0000-0001-9869-2655. Faculty of Architecture, Wro-

cław University of Science and Technology, Poland, e-mail: anna.jaglarz

pwr.edu.pl.

** ORCID: 0009-0002-0082-1784. Faculty of Architecture, Wro -

cław University of Science and Technology, Poland.

132 Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

classroom interior can shape, inuence, and regulate their be -

haviour, activities, learning processes, skill development, and

ex perience acquisition. Moreover, it can enhance the e-

ciency and productivity of their actions while contributing to

their sense of security, comfort, and well-being in their daily

environment. Architectural design that takes into account the

sensory needs of individuals with autism signicantly impacts

concentration, community functioning skills, and the educa-

tional eectiveness of children. Such environments can posi-

tively inuence behaviour by enabling children with autism to

better develop skills and acquire experiences while simultane-

ously fostering a sense of comfort and safety. Factors such as

the sensory quality of the environment, its intelligibility, and

predictability are critical for designing spaces tailored to the

needs of children with ASD. Scientic literature consistently

indicates that the design of a well-organized, safe, and stim-

ulating classroom interior is essential for supporting the de-

velopment, learning, and overall well-being of children with

autism (Tola et al. 2021).

The design of facilities and interiors intended for indi-

viduals with autism requires specialized knowledge from

designers. As such, classroom design, particularly colour

planning should be rooted in both psychological theory and

empirical user feedback. However, many design decisions

in educational interiors are still based on intuition or gen-

eralized aesthetic preferences rather than direct input from

neurodivergent users. This gap has prompted a growing

interest in participatory and user-informed research meth-

ods. Understanding how children with ASD perceive and

respond to dierent colour palettes is essential for formu-

lating design strategies that enhance their comfort, focus,

and inclusion.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurode-

velopmental condition characterized by dierences in com-

munication, behaviour, and sensory processing. Individuals

with autism spectrum disorder, including those with As-

perger’s syndrome, frequently experience signicant di-

culties with sensory processing. These challenges typically

manifest as hypersensitivity (i.e., overstimulation) and hy-

posensitivity (i.e., understimulation). Hypersensitivity re-

fers to an increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli, where an

excessive inux of sensory input can become overwhelm-

ing, potentially leading to stress, anxiety, or behavioural

disturbances. In contrast, hyposensitivity denotes a reduced

sensory responsiveness, wherein insucient visual or other

sensory stimulation may result in social withdrawal, dimin-

ished interaction, and decreased cognitive alertness. Indi-

viduals with ASD often display either hyper- or hypo-sen-

sitivities to sensory inputs such as light, sound, and colour.

In classroom settings, these sensitivities can signicantly

aect a student’s ability to concentrate, interact, and learn.

Given this, the design of educational environments should

not only accommodate these dierences but actively sup-

port students in achieving optimal cognitive and emotional

functioning. In educational settings, where children with

autism spend signicant time, thoughtful colour selection

can improve emotional regulation, reduce overstimulation,

and support learning. Conversely, the wrong colour choices

may lead to sensory overload, emotional distress, or disen-

gagement (Ben-Sasson et al. 2009).

This research aims to explore how children with ASD

respond to colour in educational spaces by combining the-

oretical literature with empirical investigation. Specically,

the study integrates academic ndings with a school-based

colour preference survey to identify which colour palettes

align with sensory comfort and perceived well-being. Rather

than focusing solely on functional performance, this project

adopts a phenomenological lens, seeking to understand how

spatial experience, perception, and emotional resonance in-

tersect in colour-related design choices. Additionally, this

study raises important questions: Do children with autism

prefer muted or vibrant colour palettes? Are there univer-

sal colour strategies that can accommodate both autistic and

neurotypical users? Can controlled contrasts or moderate

complexity be benecial in certain sensory proles? By

addressing these questions, the study aims to inform inclu-

sive and responsive design strategies for autism-supportive

classrooms.

The following research questions were formulated:

– What types of interior colour palettes are most pre-

ferred by children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in learn-

ing environments?

– How do these preferences correspond with commonly

recommended colour guidelines for ASD-friendly spaces?

–

Can visual preference surveys inform evidence-based

design strategies for autism-supportive educational interiors?

The ndings of studies can directly serve as guidelines

for designers, helping to improve the overall functioning of

autistic children in society.

The impact of interior colours

on autistic children and individuals

with psychological disorders

Many studies have attempted to decipher the physiolo gi-

cal and psychological eects of colours observed in children

with autism. Numerous behavioural changes are attributed

to the colours present in their immediate surroundings. Co-

lours can also inuence emotions and determine learning

outcomes. Autistic children are highly sensitive to colours,

which aects their perception. Most of them perceive co-

lours with greater intensity. Therefore, colours used in in-

terior spaces inuence their mood, behavior, activity, learn-

ing, and development, making careful selection essential

(Franklin et al. 2008). Both an environment that lacks stim-

ulation and one that is overly stimulating can be detrimen-

tal to students. Classrooms should be visually engaging to

stimulate the learning process and improve the behaviour of

students with ASD. Some studies suggest that neutral co-

lours are essential to prevent overstimulation, while others

argue that white and bright work-spaces reduce eciency

and cause anxiety. So far, no denitive formula has been

established for the optimal use of colours in classrooms.

However, the strong impact of colour and its key role in

designing educational spaces for autistic children is widely

emphasized (Gaines et al. 2014).

The chosen colour scheme in interiors must account for

visual sensitivity, which is of utmost importance for autistic

children with sensory processing disorders, as it can inu-

ence their mood, learning ability, and overall functioning

Research through colour-based design: Supporting the learning and well-being of children with autism 133

(Nair et al. 2022). It is crucial to emphasize the impact of

colours and the importance of using colour therapy to sup-

port autistic children, allowing them to function without

discomfort in a calming environment while also correcting

behavioural irregularities (Altenmüller-Lewis 2017; Gha-

zali, Sakip and Samsuddin 2018).

Positive effects of appropriate colour choices

Analysis of colour preferences among autistic children

has shown that pastel, matte, and muted hues are the most

suitable, as they do not distract and have a calming eect

(Nair et al. 2022). The use of neutral and uncomplicated

colour palettes is recommended (Black et al. 2022). Im-

plementing autism-friendly colour schemes such as pastel,

neutral, and subdued shades can create soothing sensory

experiences within interiors (Altenmüller-Lewis 2017).

Some researchers suggest using light, soft, natural tones

of o-white and pale pink, emphasizing that the choice

should depend on the functional level of autistic children

and their sensory sensitivities (Tola et al. 2021). The use of

neutral and relaxing tones derived from natural and organ-

ic materials is considered appropriate for autism-friendly

educational environments, as such colours foster learning,

increase concentration and attention, and enhance energy

levels (Altenmüller-Lewis 2017). Research recommends

the use of pastel, neutral, and calming colours with low

arousal properties, as well as the incorporation of natural

materials for walls, oors, and ceilings (Ghazali, Sakip and

Samsuddin 2018). Observational studies indicate that stu-

dents with autism prefer gentle and natural colours, such as

blue and green, among which light blue is identied as the

most appropriate colour for classrooms (Black et al. 2022).

Research conducted by Sardar S. Shareef and Guita Fari-

varsadri (2019) conrms that the use of grey, green, blue,

and white in classroom environments has positive eects

on students with autism.

Problematic colour combinations

and their negative impact

Unfavourable and undesirable colours (including overly

dark shades) and poorly perceived colour combinations can

cause extreme behavioural changes, such as agitation, irri-

tability, disorientation, anxiety, anger, and aggression (Nair

et al. 2022). Most researchers strongly emphasize the need

to limit strong colour contrasts (Tola et al. 2021). They in-

dicate that overly stimulating, arousing colours should be

avoided, as they can cause distress and irritation. Bright co-

lours are not recommended (Ghazali, Sakip and Samsuddin

2018). It is advised to refrain from using bold and over-

ly bright colours, as they may overstimulate and disrupt

a sense of calm, potentially causing autistic children to be-

come tense and aggressive (Altenmüller-Lewis 2017). Psy-

chological eects have been linked to specic colours. Red

and yellow can be problematic as they may cause anxiety,

distress, or confusion in autistic children, leading them to

withdraw (Altenmüller-Lewis 2017). The harmful impact

of red and yellow has been observed by over 70% of teach-

ers working with autistic children. Additionally, patterns in

interior spaces should be used sparingly, as excessive visu

al complexity may negatively impact autistic individuals

(Black et al. 2022).

Individual colour preferences and aversions

Autistic children may have specic preferences and aver-

sions to colours, which are associated with complex emo-

tional connections to certain colours. Their visual percep-

tion of colours can inuence their emotions and behaviour

(Ludlow et al. 2014). The observed aversion to yellow may

indicate a hypersensitivity in children with ASD. Psychol-

ogists suggest that yellow is one of the most visually fa-

tiguing colours. Its perception may be overwhelming for

children with ASD, whose sensitivity to sensory stimuli is

heightened. ASD children are often hypersensitive to tactile,

auditory, and visual stimuli, including colour perception.

Their advanced visual discrimination abilities can make yel-

low an overstimulating sensory trigger, leading to sensory

overload. As a result, they may naturally avoid such a strong

stimulus as an aversive reaction. This avoidance may mani-

fest in unusual colour preferences observed in autistic chil-

dren (Grandgeorge, Masataka 2016). Studies also conrm

that colour preferences and obsessions in autistic children

can be linked to their favourite objects, leading to a high-

er-than-usual preference for specic colours. This is an area

that requires further research, as ndings could be valuable

for developing teaching methods for autistic children, such

as colour-based learning associations (Ludlow et al. 2014).

Design and educational strategies

in the context of the use of colours in interiors

Colour therapy plays a crucial role in helping autistic

children function comfortably and correct behavioural ir-

regularities. Proper design elements can contribute to an au-

tism-friendly environment. Best practices include avoiding

bright, highly saturated colours, as the perception of intense

hues can vary signicantly among autistic individuals. Their

application should be limited to minimal elements, such

as way-nding maps and visual signage. It is also recom-

mended to minimize dramatic contrasts. To create a sooth-

ing sensory experience, it is recommended to use a palette

of pastel, neutral, and subdued colours. Research suggests

that shades of blue and green are preferred, while yellow

may trigger aversion due to its potentially overstimulating

eect (as it can be perceived as too intense). Gradual colour

transitions and the use of soft complementary gradients are

recommended, with contrast restricted to functional purpos-

es, such as functional zoning. Colour can be used to dene

spatial boundaries and establish relationships between dif-

ferent areas. It can also assist in dividing spaces into distinct

zones without the need for physical barriers. Additionally,

colours can facilitate navigation by incorporating uid, uni-

form colour pathways on the oor or subtle colour contrasts

along edges, which visually anchor the autistic user within

the space (Mohamed, Almaz 2024). Observations indicate

that the use of colour-coded markers in interior spaces for

clear functional zoning and highlighting certain elements

can make spaces more accessible and easier to navigate for

134 Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

autistic children (Altenmüller-Lewis 2017; Ghazali, Sakip

and Samsuddin 2018; Tola et al. 2021). Environments with

dierent sensory stimulation levels can be associated with

colours that oer varying degrees of stimulation. Person-

alizing spaces with individual colours or objects may help

autistic children create stronger associations with their sur-

roundings (Ghazali, Sakip and Samsuddin 2018).

To enhance architectural students’ and designers’ un-

derstanding of the emotional impact of colours on autistic

children, realistic research and testing must be conducted

among autistic and psychiatrically diagnosed children. Ac-

curate and comprehensive ndings regarding their colour

preferences may guide the selection of appropriate colours

for their interior environments. Studies are needed to de-

termine the inuence of colours on learning and the com-

pletion of specic, complex tasks. Research should also

ex plore the psychological impact and its eect on cogni-

tive function development in autistic children (Al-Badrani,

Sanad 2022).

Scientists also emphasize the importance of active en-

gagement and participation from parents, caregivers, teach-

ers, and young designers in research and intervention ac-

tivities to better understand autistic children’s behaviour.

This involvement is essential for productive experiments,

testing, and initiatives aimed at improving developmental,

behavioural, and educational outcomes for autistic children

(Fearns et al. 2022).

Detailed observations could contribute to the develop-

ment of architectural design strategies that support growth,

facilitate social interaction, and improve integration within

various facilities, including educational institutions. Aware-

ness and understanding of the specic needs, preferences,

challenges, and expectations of autistic children will enable

architects and interior designers to incorporate these es-

sential psychological and physiological aspects, including

colour perception, when designing ergonomic, inclusive,

and supportive spaces for children on the autism spectrum

(Alten müller-Lewis 2017; Fabri, Sattereld 2019).

The importance and effects of colours

in the educational environment

The colour design of educational environments deter-

mines how supportive and stimulating these spaces are for

learning and daily life. It should facilitate identication and

well-being, support individual and social development pro-

cesses, and enhance pedagogical approaches and activities.

Colour concepts for educational institutions should be de-

veloped to ensure that colours and materials align with the

following fundamental themes:

– familiarity with the environment and a sense of se-

curity,

– eective communication,

– stimulation, dierentiation, and heightened percep-

tion,

– motivation,

– attention and concentration,

– relaxation,

– movement,

– creativity.

The prevailing atmosphere of an educational environment

should be characterized by openness. It should foster a sense

of security and trust while radiating friendliness and accessi-

bility (Meerwein, Rodeck and Mahnke 2007). A classroom

is a shared space for teachers and students, where most of

the school day is spent. It is a place for learning, working,

communicating, and collaborating. The atmosphere should

promote a sense of security and support concentration

(Meerwein, Rodeck and Mahnke 2007). The design of class-

room interiors as educational spaces is considered one of the

most decisive factors inuencing students’ behaviour and

acade mic performance. The choice of colours in classrooms

is crucial in creating an eective learning environment. It

is evident that colour is not merely an aesthetic element but

plays a signicant and inuential role in shaping the rela-

tionship between users and their educational environment.

Based on empirical evidence, it has been concluded that co-

lour balance in classrooms is essential to support learning

processes. Both excessive and insucient stimulation can

have negative consequences (Gaines et al. 2014). This chap-

ter highlights blue as a positive physical and psychological

stimulus in educational spaces, recognizing it as one of the

key design factors.

Numerous studies have examined the emotional eects

of warm and cool colours and their inuence on users’ per-

ception. The ndings provide insights into which colour

ranges and specic hues are most eective in educational

environments, shaping students’ perception and behaviour.

Research indicates that cool colours evoke feelings of re-

laxation, tranquility, spaciousness, comfort, security, peace,

and harmony. Additionally, it has been conrmed that peo-

ple feel more introverted in cool-coloured environments,

which can enhance their focus on visual and cognitive tasks.

A study analyzing students’ perception of colour in a class-

room environment found that the use of dierent colours in

the classroom interior had a statistically signicant impact

on students’ perceptual performance. The results demon-

strated that blue-coloured spaces were perceived more pos-

itively, being described as joyful, spacious, calm, pleasant,

quiet, and comfortable compared to spaces in other colours.

Therefore, it is recommended to incorporate shades of blue

to enhance comfort conditions, improve the quality of the

educational environment, and create an eective learning

space for students (Yildirim, Cagatay and Ayalp 2015).

There is evidence that the colours of architectural envi-

ronments have physiological, emotional, and cognitive ef-

fects on students. The latest research ndings indicate that

classrooms with cool, low-saturation wall colours (e.g.,

light blue) are perceived more positively by school-aged

students compared to classrooms with warm, low-satura-

tion wall colours (e.g., cream or pink). Studies also con-

rm that cool colours enhance student concentration, and

shades of blue are particularly benecial for completing

dicult tasks and achieving higher IQ test scores. Both

psychological and neurophysiological ndings suggest that

cool tones improve attention and memory performance

more eectively than warm tones. This can be explained

at the neurophysiological level as the eect of an optimal

activation level of the sympathetic nervous system, which

supports higher alertness and cognitive eciency. Grow-

Research through colour-based design: Supporting the learning and well-being of children with autism 135

ing evidence suggests that the colour of classroom walls

inuences student performance. Research results indicate

that cool-toned colours increase stimulation and improve

performance in tasks related to attention and memory; these

ndings can serve as a foundation for developing design

guidelines (Llinares et al. 2021). Based on previous studies,

it is possible to track ndings regarding the impact of co-

lours on learning, cognitive task performance, and creativi-

ty. These insights are valuable in supporting the ergonomic

design of educational environments.

Most studies in this eld have focused on two of the

three primary colours, i.e., red versus blue. A word associ-

ation test conrmed that people generate dierent associa-

tions with red compared to blue in the domain of cognitive

tasks. It has been shown that red and blue activate dierent

motivations, which in turn enhance performance in dier-

ent types of cognitive tasks.

Red, due to its association with danger and mistakes (e.g.,

red-marked errors, stop signs, and warning signals), is expect-

ed to trigger avoidance motivation, which has been shown to

increase alertness and risk aversion. As a result, red should

improve performance in detail-oriented tasks (i.e., tasks re-

quiring focused, careful attention) compared to blue.

Conversely, blue has positive associations in the natural

world (e.g., the sky, water oceans, seas) and is commonly

linked to openness, calmness, and tranquility. It is likely to

activate approach motivation, as these associations signal

a safe and welcoming environment, encouraging individ-

uals to adopt innovative rather than conventional prob-

lem-solving strategies. Indeed, studies on approach motiva-

tion have shown that people behave in a more exploratory

and even risk-taking manner under the inuence of blue.

Associated with openness and freedom, blue can activate

a promotion-focused mindset, encouraging individuals to

strive for positive outcomes, which in turn enhances per-

formance in creative tasks. Thus, blue, in contrast to red, is

more benecial for tasks that require creativity and imag-

ination. The avoidance motivation triggered by red leads

to lower performance as it suppresses attempts to answer

more complex questions. The positive eect of blue on

creativity should be recognized and utilized (Mehta, Zhu

2009; Elliot, Maier, 2014).

Another study examining the impact of colour on cog-

nitive task performance not only considered task type but

also task diculty. The study investigated the eects of

three environmental colours red, blue, and grey on two

types of cognitive tasks (detail-oriented tasks and creative

tasks) at two diculty levels (simple or dicult). The

ndings showed that red improved performance in simple

detail-oriented tasks. Meanwhile, blue improved perfor-

mance in dicult detail-oriented tasks as well as in cre-

ative tasks, regardless of whether the task was simple or

dicult. This research highlights the critical role of blue

in educational environments (Xia et al. 2016). Blue is per-

ceived as a motivator for intellectual and logical thinking,

supporting clarity of thought and enhancing concentration,

which is why its use is recommended in classrooms and

learning spaces. It has a positive eect on students’ percep-

tion, instilling a sense of hope, curiosity, and satisfaction

within a group. Some studies even suggest that blue has an

awakening eect on students, increasing their performance

in educational environments (Baper, Husein and Salim

2021). Some research conrms that colour serves as a cue

that helps students recall information. For example, blue in-

creases the likelihood that transmitted information will be

remembered. Therefore, using it in educational settings can

support knowledge retention (Chang, Xu and Watt 2018).

Other studies analyze the perception of blue as a crucial

factor in educational environments, positively inuencing

students’ emotions and moods, which is particularly rele-

vant in designing interior spaces for children with cognitive

disorders. The classroom atmosphere can impact children’s

emotions, helping them calm down and focus on learning.

Blue is often associated with peace, tranquility, and harmo-

ny, as it creates a calming eect in the environment, mak-

ing it an ideal colour for a peaceful and soothing classroom

setting.

This calming, relaxing eect fosters positive emotions

and promotes children’s rest. It may even have healing prop-

erties, which is why it is frequently used in pediatric hos pi-

tal rooms. Studies show that children feel more relaxed and

at ease in cool-coloured environments, such as light blue,

especially in medical facilities (Thung, Ahmad 2022).

Analyzing the connection between colours, emotions, and

cognitive learning, it is crucial to emphasize that positive

emotions triggered by colours can improve cognitive and

aective performance. Understanding how colours inuence

students’ emotions, moods, and behaviors is valuable for

de-

signers. As a cool and passive colour, blue should be used to

maintain a sense of calm among students, fostering positive

emotions that enhance knowledge acquisition. It has been

conrmed that blue classroom walls provide the highest

level of relaxation and comfort (Chang, Xu and Watt 2018;

Liu et al. 2022). This positive eect of blue can be con-

rmed by the ecological theory of colour preference, which

suggests that an individual’s preference for a particular co-

lour is inuenced by their positive associations with objects

and entities related to that colour. As a result, this theory

predicts (and research supports) that people tend to favour

colours that remind them of objects they like (e.g., saturated

blue, often associated with positive elements such as clear

skies and clean water). One of the potentially signicant

factors inuencing colour preferences is symbolic associ-

ations and abstract conceptual connections. Blue is often

described as a calming colour because it reminds us of the

ocean and the sky. For children, object-based associations

(e.g., the sea or a lake being linked to blue) are more rele-

vant than symbolic associations (e.g., associating blue with

peace) (Schloss, Palmer 2017). Common colour preference

patterns in a population may indicate either “hardwired”

preferences established over evolutionary timescales or

individual, exible preferences shaped through shared ex-

posure to common stimuli that evoke similar emotions for

example, the pleasure of seeing a clear, blue sky might be

as widespread today as it was millennia ago. Any resulting

preference for blue may thus have both contemporary and

ancient roots (Best 2017; Hurlbert, Ling 2012).

The scientic interest in the relationship between colour

and psychological functioning can be traced back to the

German poet and polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

136 Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

In his classic work “Theory of Colours” (1840), Goethe

proposed intuitive speculations on how colour perception

inuences emotional experience. These speculations were

later expanded upon in the 20

century by psychiatrist Kurt

Goldstein. Goldstein integrated Goethe’s ideas with his cli-

nical observations, suggesting that colour perception trig-

gers physiological responses in the body, which manifest in

emotions, cognitive concentration, and motor behaviours.

Based on these studies, blue was recognized as a relaxing

colour, promoting introspection and eliciting calm and sta-

ble reactions. This state, induced by blue, was found to pos-

itively impact cognitive task performance, making it easier

to complete complex tasks (Elliot, Maier 2014).

Research objectives,

materials, and methods

This study aimed to expand the scientic foundations

for selecting colours in educational environments designed

for children with autism spectrum disorder. Throughout the

research process, a literature review method was employed,

analyzing and examining scientic sources related to the

application of colours in educational spaces, particularly

those designed for individuals with autism. Additionally,

a survey methodology and the “Research Through Design”

approach were applied, integrating design activities into the

research process. A crucial source of knowledge was the

stimulus material created by the designer, which enabled

the acquisition of new insights into the needs, preferences,

and expectations of autistic children in their educational

environment.

Before conducting the study, the research process was

consulted with the Research Ethics Committee at Wrocław

University of Science and Technology. It was determined

that, despite the sensitivity of the group of children involv-

ed in the study, the applied method was entirely safe as it

did not interfere with, harm, or exhaust the children, and it

respected their needs, limitations, and disabilities.

The conducted study was associated with the modern-

ization of classroom interiors in a school for children with

autism spectrum disorder (Horyzont Primary School in Żo -

ry). To create an environment that positively inuences

children’s behaviour, emotions, and learning outcomes, it

was necessary to examine the scientic foundations for se-

lecting colours in educational settings and to identify the

colour preferences of autistic children and children with

Asperger’s syndrome. To achieve this, the study aimed to

determine which colours were most liked and desired by

these children in their immediate surroundings, as well as

which colours were recommended due to their positive im-

pact. The study reviewed existing research ndings in this

eld and surveyed a primary school for children with au-

tism and Asperger’s syndrome. A total of 44 children, aged

8 to 14, participated in the study (all diagnosed with neu-

rodevelopmental disorders). They were shown various co-

lour scheme concepts for children’s rooms, allowing them

to choose the one they would most like to live in. The idea

of the children’s room in the rst stage of the study was

based on its role and signicance in the child’s daily life,

as a space with which they have the closest contact and in

which they perform all their activities. It is also a space that

serves an educational function from the earliest moments of

the child’s life, even before the preschool and school stag-

es. Afterward, a survey was conducted regarding their fa-

vourite colour. This sequence of actions was intentional by

observing various colour combinations in interior spaces,

the children could recall colours more eectively, making

it easier for them to select their preferred colour. Based on

the results of the study, it was determined that blue was the

most favoured colour among autistic children.

In subsequent stages of the research process, the study

aimed to determine which colours were recommended in

educational settings. A literature review on the impact of

colours on emotions, moods, behaviours, eectiveness, and

productivity in the learning process regardless of students’

psychophysical condition allowed for the conclusion that

blue is the most recommended colour for educational en-

vironments. This led to a suggestion and hypothesis, which

the study sought to verify: that planning school interiors us-

ing the colour blue could be a universal approach. By ensur-

ing a generally positive inuence on students, this strategy

could also accommodate the special needs and expectations

of autistic children. Taking into account autistic children’s

preference for the colour blue and its signicant role in ed-

ucational spaces, a design concept for a classroom interior

in a school for children with autism spectrum disorder was

developed. Among these design concepts, 12 variations

were created, featuring dierent shades and combinations

of blue. Additionally, one concept was developed without

the colour blue, instead incorporating a monochromatic

palette of light, warm, and muted shades such as beige, yel-

low, orange, salmon-pink, and light brown. Accent nuances

within this palette included light grey, black, muted red,

and a honey-toned wood shade. The children studying in

this classroom (every child participated in the rst stage of

the study) were presented with all 13 design concepts and

were asked to choose the one they liked the most.

Research process

The rst stage of the research experiment involved as-

sessing which colours were most liked and preferred by

autistic children. To achieve this, a set of stimulus materials

was prepared, consisting of visual representations of chil-

dren’s rooms designed in various colour schemes. These

visualizations were created by students in the Faculty of

Architecture at Wrocław University of Science and Tech-

nology as part of the “Interior Design” course. The chil-

dren’s room concepts were printed on high-quality paper

to ensure easy and eective presentation to the children.

The survey was conducted at Horyzont School in Żory,

a primary school for children with autism spectrum disor-

der. The school follows the national curriculum for primary

education (grades 1–8) in accordance with the guidelines of

the Ministry of National Education (MEN) and implements

individualized therapeutic programs. Currently, the school

educates 56 children. As part of the survey, 44 children

aged 8 to 14 were examined by presenting them with vari-

ous colour concepts for children’s rooms, allowing them to

choose the one in which they would most like to live. The

Research through colour-based design: Supporting the learning and well-being of children with autism 137

children’s room concept that received the highest prefer-

ence is presented in Figure 1.

In the next stage of the test, a survey was conducted to

determine the preferred colour as each child selected a cray-

on in their favourite shade. The sequence of these activities

was deliberate: by viewing visual representations of chil-

dren’s rooms, the children were exposed to various colour

combinations in interior spaces. This process helped them

recall colours more eectively and make a more informed

choice. The visual stimulation played a key role in facilitat-

ing their selection of a preferred colour. Based on the study

results, shades of blue emerged as the most favoured among

autistic children. A summary of the colour preference re-

sults is presented in Table 1.

Based on literature studies, the results of the conducted

research, and an on-site inspection, design guidelines were

developed for the colour concept of one of the classrooms

at Horyzont Primary School for Children on the Autism

Spectrum in Żory. Materials from the on-site inspection are

presented in Figure 2.

Design Guidelines for the Classroom Modernization Con-

cept in Terms of Colour Selection, Considering the Need to

Create an Autism-Friendly Educational Environment.

Based on literature studies:

– Use of pastel, neutral, and muted colour palettes.

– Minimization of bright, intense, and highly saturated

colours (limited to small elements or visual markers).

– Reduction of strong contrasts, including highly con-

trasting patterns.

– Application of blue shades based on the colour prefer-

ences of autistic children.

– Use of blue shades due to their positive impact on au-

tistic children.

– Implementation of blue shades for their benecial ef-

fects on students in an educational environment (inuenc-

ing behaviour, mood, and learning outcomes).

– Use of gradual colour and tonal transitions.

– Application of complementary (opposite) colours in

soft, muted, subdued gradients/shades.

Fig. 1. The concept of a children’s room

was the most popular among autistic children

(visualization by M. Sobeczko, M. Ciesielska)

Il. 1. Koncepcja pokoju dziecięcego,

który cieszył się największą popularnością wśród dzieci autystycznych

(wizualizacja: M. Sobeczko, M. Ciesielska)

Colour Number of preferences

Blue 12

Red 8

Green 6

Light brown/ocher 5

Pink 5

Black 5

Purple 2

Yellow 1

Total 44

Table 1. Children’s favourite colours based on their choice of crayon

(but in different shades)

(elaborated by A. Jaglarz)

Tabela 1. Barwy preferowane przez dzieci na podstawie wyboru kredki

w ulubionym kolorze (o różnych odcieniach)

(oprac. A. Jaglarz)

Fig. 2. Existing condition of the classroom at Horyzont Primary School for Children on the Autism Spectrum in Żory:

(photo by A. Jaglarz)

Il. 2. Stan istniejący klasy w Szkole Podstawowej Horyzont dla dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu w Żorach:

(fot. A. Jaglarz)

138 Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

– Use of more pronounced contrasts for functional pur-

poses, such as zoning, emphasizing key elements, dening

boundaries and divisions, and establishing relationships be-

tween dierent areas.

Based on the conducted research experiment/survey:

– Use of shades of blue (including navy blue) based on

the selected concept of the children’s room.

– Use of shades of blue based on the colour of the cray-

on chosen by the children.

– Use of shades of blue as colours associated with a ga-

lactic, cosmic, and celestial style and design.

Based on the on-site inspection:

– Use of colours matching the existing oor nish

(sand-coloured ceramic tiles with pink and blue accents).

– Suggestion to change the oor nish and introduce

a dierent colour scheme.

– Incorporation of the burgundy colour of the existing

window joinery into the proposed colour scheme.

– Use of the existing colour scheme of the technical in-

stallation/ventilation (steel-coloured spiro pipes).

– Suggestion to paint the technical elements in a dier-

ent colour.

– Retention of the current wood colour in the proposed

palette (with the option to replace or renovate the current

furniture).

– Changing the wall colour (white is considered inap-

propriate in an educational environment as it reects light,

distracts the eye, causes discomfort when looking, and in-

terferes with concentration and learning).

Taking into account the design assumptions, various

colour concepts for the school classroom were developed.

From these, 12 concepts were selected that most closely

matched the design guidelines derived from literature stud-

ies, survey results, and site inspection. Additionally, one ex-

tra concept was included, featuring a monochromatic palette

without any blue shades. This alternative palette consisted

of light, warm, and subdued shades of beige, yellow, or-

ange, salmon-pink, and light brown. Accent nuances in this

palette included light gray, black, subdued red, and a honey

shade of wood. All 13 concepts were presented to students

of the modernized classroom as part of a homeroom lesson

(Table 2 presents the 13 colour concepts for the classroom

along with a description of the colour palette used.) The

homeroom teacher asked the students to choose their pre-

ferred concept. Surprisingly, the unanimous choice was the

concept that did not include the colour blue at all.

Results and discussion

The ndings from previous scientic studies conrm

the positive eects of blue on the moods and behaviours

of autistic children. Similarly, researchers consider blue to

be the most benecial colour in educational environments,

as it eectively supports students’ learning and cognitive

processes. The colour preference survey conducted among

autistic children at Horyzont Primary School also identied

blue as their most favoured colour. However, the children’s

nal selection of a classroom design concept that does not

include the colour blue was unexpected and surprising.

Figure 3 illustrate the nal design concept of the school

classroom, featuring a colour composition tailored to the

needs, requirements, and expectations of children with au-

tism and Asperger’s syndrome.

When comparing the selected classroom design concept

(Fig. 3) with the previously chosen children’s room con-

cept (Fig. 1) and analyzing the colour schemes used, a no-

table similarity emerges in terms of yellowish shades, light

browns, and black elements. The deep navy blue present in

No. Visualization of the colour concept The colour palette used

Triadic colour palette: Yellow, blue, red

(three colours located at equal distances from each other

on the colour wheel)

Main colours: Yellow and blue (walls and large surfaces)

Accent colours: Golden brown of wood, beige pink, various

shades of blue (colours emphasizing, enhancing and accentuating

the main colours based on harmony,

selected based on the similarity of shades and similarity

of colours to the main colours)

Contrasting colour: Red (appearing on details and exposing

the main colours based on contrast, the most eye-catching colour)

Contrasts: Brightness contrast (dark shades, e.g., dark blue

against light shades: light yellow, white), complementary contrast

(yellow vs. blue), saturation contrast (saturated red and muted

beige-pink light shade), tonal contrast (is based on a combination

of three primary colours – red, blue and yellow), temperature

contrast (warm shades, e.g., yellow or red vs. cool tones

– shades of blue), quantitative contrast (yellow and blue vs. red,

contrasting colour patterns on the floor relative to the smooth

surfaces of the walls and ceiling)

Table 2. Colour concepts for the classroom at Horyzont Primary School for Children on the Autism Spectrum in Żory

(elaborated by A. Jaglarz and B. Turgut)

Tabela 2. Koncepcje kolorystyczne klasy w Szkole Podstawowej Horyzont dla dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu w Żorach

(oprac. A. Jaglarz i B. Turgut)

Research through colour-based design: Supporting the learning and well-being of children with autism 139

No. Visualization of the colour concept The colour palette used

Complementary colour palette: Yellow and blue

(colours located on opposite sides of the colour wheel)

Main colours: Warm yellow and beige (walls, large surfaces)

Accent colours: Shades of blue, shades of beige, light brown

and white (furniture, details)

Contrasting colour: Intense yellow

Contrasts: brightness contrast (deep navy vs. yellow, white),

saturation contrast (saturated yellow and muted yellow),

complementary contrast (yellow and blue),

temperature contrast (warm yellow vs. cool blue)

Complementary colour palette: Yellow and blue

Main colours: Deep blue and light beige (walls, large areas)

Accent colours: Shades of blue, beige yellow,

shades of grey, white

Contrasting colour: None (the colour scheme is based

on the complementary contrast of yellow and blue)

Contrasts: Brightness contrast (deep navy and light beige,

white), complementary contrast (yellow and blue),

temperature contrast (warm shades of beige

and yellow against cool shades of blue and grey)

Triadic colour palette: Blue, yellow and red

Main colours: Blue and beige yellow

(large areas)

Accent colours: Shades of blue and gray, light brown wood,

muted, light, pinkish shades of red

Contrasting colour: None (no colour dominates, the scheme

is harmonious due to the equal proportions of shades

of three complementary colours)

Contrasts: Brightness contrast

(dark blue against light yellow and white,

dark red against white),

complementary contrast (blue and yellow),

tonal contrast (is based on a combination

of three primary colours – red, blue and yellow),

temperature contrast (warm red/yellow vs. cool blue)

Triadic colour palette: Blue, yellow, pink

Main colours: soft blue and beige (walls, surfaces)

Accent colours: Shades of blue, shades of pink,

light brown wood, white

Contrasting colour: None (harmonious complementary scheme)

Contrasts: Complementary contrast (blue and light yellow),

temperature contrast (cool blue vs. warm pink/yellow)

Complementary colour palette: Pink and blue

Main colours: Soft pink and beige, blue (walls, large areas)

Accent colours: Light blue, shades of pink, white,

light brown wood

Contrasting colour: None (harmonious complementary scheme)

Contrasts: Temperature contrast

(warm pink/light brown wood vs. cool blue)

140 Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

Table 2 cont. Colour concepts for the classroom at Horyzont Primary School for Children on the Autism Spectrum in Żory

(elaborated by A. Jaglarz and B. Turgut)

Tabela 2 cd. Koncepcje kolorystyczne klasy w Szkole Podstawowej Horyzont dla dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu w Żorach

(oprac. A. Jaglarz, B. Turgut)

No. Visualization of the colour concept The colour palette used

Complementary colour palette: Orange and blue

Main colours: Warm coral and blue (walls, dominant surfaces)

Accent colours: Light pink and white, shades of blue

Contrasting colour: None (as blue and coral provide the main

complementary contrast)

Contrasts: Saturation contrast

(rich coral against subdued pink and beige),

temperature contrast (warm coral contrasts with cool blue)

Triadic colour palette: Yellow, blue and red

Main colours: Deep blue and light yellow

Accent colours: shades of blue, gray, white, pink, yellow

and light brown wood

Contrasting colour: Red (appearing on details and exposing

the main colours on the basis of contrast,

the colour that catches the eye the most)

Contrasts: Brightness contrast (deep blue vs. light yellow),

saturation contrast (saturated red against muted light pink),

tonal contrast (is based on a combination of three primary colours

– red, blue and yellow),

temperature contrast (warm yellow/red vs. cool blue),

quantitative contrast (yellow and blue vs. red, contrasting colour

divisions/patterns on the floor relative to the smooth surfaces

of the walls and ceiling)

Triadic colour palette: Yellow, blue and red

Main colours: Deep blue and light yellow

(walls, large surfaces)

Accent colours: Shades of blue, shades of yellow, light brown

wood, light pink, white, grey

Contrasting colour: Red (appearing on details and exposing

the main colours on the basis of contrast,

the colour that catches the eye the most)

Contrasts: Brightness contrast (deep blue vs. light yellow),

saturation contrast (saturated red against a diluted light pink,

saturated yellow against a light, subtle yellow), tonal contrast

(is based on a combination of three primary colours

– red, blue and yellow),

temperature contrast (warm yellow/red vs. cool blue),

quantitative contrast (yellow and blue vs. red,

contrasting colour divisions/patterns on the floor relative

to the smooth surfaces of the walls and ceiling)

Triadic colour palette: Yellow, blue and red

Main colours: Deep blue and light yellow/beige

(walls, large surfaces)

Accent colours: shades of blue, pink, light shade of wood

Contrasting colour: Red (appearing on details and exposing

the main colours on the basis of contrast,

the colour that catches the eye the most)

Contrasts: Brightness contrast (deep blue vs. yellow),

saturation contrast (saturated red against light pink,

saturated blue against light blue),

tonal contrast (is based on a combination of three primary colours

– red, blue and yellow),

temperature contrast (warm yellow/red contrasts with cool blue),

quantitative contrast (yellow and blue dominate,

red used in smaller accents)

Research through colour-based design: Supporting the learning and well-being of children with autism 141

the selected children’s room design, typically categorized

as a shade of blue, was likely perceived by the children as

nearly black especially since its darkness was accentuated

by the contrast with white.

Interpretation of contradictory findings

on colour preferences

While blue was the most selected crayon colour, the pre-

ferred interior concept excluded blue altogether. This contra-

diction may result from several factors. Firstly, children may

associate blue as a favourite in isolation (e.g., crayons) but

perceive it dierently when integrated into larger, immersive

spatial contexts. Secondly, the dominant yellow-beige pal-

ette in the selected design might have evoked a warmer, saf-

er, more “home-like” feeling, aligning with sensory comfort

rather than abstract preference. Thirdly, visual complexity,

lighting, or contrast levels in the visualizations may have

inuenced children’s perception subconsciously, overriding

their previously stated preferences. This highlights the fact

that favourite colours in abstract do not always translate into

preferred spatial environments, especially in neurodiverse

children. It suggests that emotional comfort and perceived

warmth in interior design can override isolated colour pref-

erences. This divergence underscores the complexity of de-

sign decisions for neurodiverse users and emphasizes the

importance of testing spatial experience rather than relying

on isolated colour preferences.

Comparative synthesis of literature

and empirical findings

While the literature widely supports the use of blue as

a calming and cognitively supportive colour, this study re-

veals that autistic children may prefer non-blue environments

when spatial, emotional, and sensory aspects are collectively

No. Visualization of the colour concept The colour palette used

Triadic colour palette: Blue, yellow, red

Main colours: deep blue and light yellow/white

(walls, large surfaces)

Accent colours:

Light brown wood, shades of grey, shades of blue

Contrasting colour: Red (appearing on details

and exposing the main colours on the basis of contrast,

the colour that catches the eye the most)

Contrasts: Brightness contrast (deep blue vs. yellow/white),

saturation contrast (saturated blue against muted grey-blue),

tonal contrast (is based on a combination of three primary colours

– red, blue and yellow),

temperature contrast (warm red/yellow vs. cool blue),

quantitative contrast (blue and yellow dominate,

red used strategically, contrasting colour divisions/patterns

on the floor relative to the smooth surfaces of the walls and ceiling)

Complementary colour palette: Blue and golden brown/yellow

Main colours: Blue and off-white (walls, largest spaces)

Accent colours: Warm wooden tones, brown, orange, muted red,

shades of yellow

Contrasting colour: Saturated yellow

Contrasts: brightness contrast (light walls vs. deep blue elements),

saturation contrast (saturated blue vs. light muted blue),

temperature contrast (cool blue contrasts

with warm wooden and yellow),

quantitative contrast (blue surfaces vs. yellow elements)

Analogous colour palette: Beige, apricot yellow, golden orange,

light brown (closely related colours in the colour wheel)

Main colours: Light beige and soft apricot yellow

(walls, largest surfaces)

Accent colours: Brown, muted red, grey (shade similarity

and colour similarity in relation to the main colour)

Contrasting colour: Black

Contrasts: Brightness contrast (light yellow vs. black),

quantitative contrast (black is used in small details

but strongly stands out),

saturation contrast (the black is deep and intense compared

to the remaining shades), temperature contrast (warm yellow

and apricot tones contrasted with cooler grey and black)

142 Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

considered. This suggests a divergence betwe en abstract

preferences and holistic environmental perception. Design-

ers should thus avoid rigid generalizations based on isolated

colour studies and instead adopt a exible, context-sensitive

approach informed by real user engagement. Therefore, in-

terior design strategies for autism-supportive environments

should integrate both abstract colour preferences and experi-

ential spatial perceptions, ensuring a ba lance between theo-

retical guidelines and real-world emotional responses.

Conclusions

The results of this study provide valuable insights that

can serve as guidelines for architects and interior design-

ers when planning educational spaces for autistic children.

When designing the colours of educational spaces dedicat-

ed to autistic children, it is advisable to consider:

–

the use of monochromatic or analogous colour schemes,

in which there are shades of one colour or closely related

colours that are adjacent on the colour wheel,

– the preference for warm colour tones,

– the application of light, pastel colours,

– the avoidance of highly saturated colours in favour of

muted and subdued shades,

– the minimization of strong colour contrasts,

–

the incorporation of neutral or monochromatic shades,

such as black, grey, white, or deep navy, to introduce subtle

emphasis or complementary elements in the overall colour

composition.

Fig. 3. The classroom design concept selected by children with autism

(visualization by B. Turgut)

Il. 3. Koncepcja projektowa sali lekcyjnej wybrana przez dzieci z autyzmem

(wizualizacja: B. Turgut)

Due to certain discrepancies in the results of previous

studies, there remains a need to analyze and test the impact

of various colour schemes on psychological, behavioural,

and task-related outcomes among children with cognitive

disorders, such as autism or Asperger’s syndrome. Design-

ing interiors with appropriate colour combinations may

also support children with other neurological conditions,

including ADHD, hyperactivity, or attention decits. The

prevalence of these disorders has increased over the past

century, underscoring the necessity of improving interior

spaces to accommodate the special needs of children, with

the aim of facilitating their preparation for and fostering

healthy interactions with the community. It is also important

to emphasize that modifying colour schemes in the indoor

environments of educational institutions catering to chil-

dren with autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders

potentially enhancing their psychological, behavioural, and

task-related patterns often involves relatively simple ad-

justments that require minimal eort and cost (Attia 2020).

In justifying the aims and signicance of the conducted

research, it is essential to underscore its applicability with-

in professional practice for architects and interior design-

ers, oering them concrete design directives. Moreover,

the obtained ndings can serve as a valuable pedagogical

resource and a theoretical framework for students and ac-

ademic faculty engaged in architectural design education.

Translated by

Anna Jaglarz and Berkay Turgut

Research through colour-based design: Supporting the learning and well-being of children with autism 143

Streszczenie

Badania poprzez projektowanie kolorystyczne:

wspieranie uczenia się i dobrostanu dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu

Planowanie środowiska edukacyjnego dla dzieci z autyzmem stanowi istotne wyzwanie dla projektantów. Odpowiednia aranżacja kolorystyczna

wnętrz sal lekcyjnych może wpływać na ich zachowanie, aktywność, procesy uczenia się, rozwój umiejętności oraz zdobywanie doświadczeń. Ponadto

może zwiększać skuteczność i efektywność ich działań, a także przyczyniać się do zapewnienia ochrony, bezpieczeństwa, komfortu i dobrostanu w prze-

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144 Anna Jaglarz, Berkay Turgut

strzeniach, w których dzieci spędzają czas. Autorzy wielu badań podkreślają, że kolory środowiska edukacyjnego wywierają zjologiczny, emocjonalny

i poznawczy wpływ na uczniów, co jest szczególnie istotne w kontekście projektowania wnętrz instytucji edukacyjnych przeznaczonych dla dzieci

z zaburzeniami poznawczymi. Odpowiednio dobrane kolory mogą znacząco wpływać na ich interakcje ze środowiskiem, które często są ograniczo-

ne lub zaburzone. Celem niniejszego badania było zgłębienie i uzupełnienie naukowych podstaw doboru kolorystyki w środowiskach edukacyjnych

przeznaczonych dla dzieci z zaburzeniami neurorozwojowymi, w tym dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu. Proces badawczy opierał się na metodzie przeglądu

literatury – analizie i ocenie źródeł naukowych dotyczących zastosowania kolorów w przestrzeniach edukacyjnych dla osób z autyzmem. Ponadto

wykorzystano ankiety oraz podejście „research through design”, integrujące działania projektowe z procesem badawczym. Istotnym źródłem wiedzy

był materiał stymulujący, stworzony przez projektantów, który umożliwił zdobycie nowych informacji na temat potrzeb, preferencji i oczekiwań dzieci

autystycznych w kontekście ich środowiska edukacyjnego.

Słowa kluczowe: architektura, percepcja kolorów, autyzm, klasa, edukacja