Urban densification in local spatial development plans. Example of Wrocław city center in years 2010–2024

Maciej Pilny

doi:10.37190/arc250413

Abstract

The background of the research conducted for this article is the growing activity of developers in Polish city centers in recent years. Wrocław was selected as one of the fastest-developing cities in Poland. The study’s objective was to identify the planning authorities’ approach to urban densification in Wrocław’s city center.

The analysis covers local spatial development plans adopted between 2010–2024 and their impact on construction intensification in the city center. The consequences of the densification process for spatial structure, residents’ quality of life, and cultural heritage are presented.

2025

4(84)

Maciej Pilny*

Urban densification in local spatial development plans:

a case study of Wrocław city centre between 2010 and 2024

DOI: 10.37190/arc250413

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

Abstract

The background of the research conducted for this article is the increasing activity of real estate developers in the centres of Polish cities in recent

years. Wrocław was chosen as one of the fastest-developing cities in Poland. The aim of the study was to identify the approach of planning authorities

to urban densication in the provisions of local spatial development plans adopted between 2010 and 2024. The research included an analysis of 95

local spatial development plans with regard to the urban density indicators contained in them.

Based on an analysis of planning activity in the city centre of Wrocław between 2010 and 2024, the extent to which the process of urban den-

sication is planned and controlled – on the basis of binding local spatial development plans – was determined. The study revealed that local plans

are used both to establish a framework for the densication of the built environment and to prevent undesirable densication. Urban densication

strategies present in the planning documents were identied. As a result of the analysis, an original classication of local plans into four categories

was proposed, each reecting a dierent approach to the densication process.

Key words: urban planning, spatial planning, Wrocław, densication

Introduction

The starting point for this research is the intensied activ-

ity in recent years of developers delivering residential proj-

ects within already urbanised areas, especially in Poland’s

largest cities (Samorek, Cichocki 2023). New investments

are frequently located in areas with an already dened ur-

ban fabric (e.g. within prefabricated-panel housing estates

or as frontage completion) or on post-industrial land. They

are often criticised for the low quality of both the buildings

and their surroundings, for high population densities, and

for the deterioration of living conditions in densied estates.

The colloquial term patodeweloperka

– a pejorative neolo-

gism targeting poor-quality housing – has entered common

* ORCID: 0000-0002-6634-7475. Faculty of Architecture, Wro-

cław University of Science and Technology, Poland, e-mail: maciej.

pilny@pwr.edu.pl

This term has, for instance, appeared in the titles of books by Łu-

kasz Drozda (Dziury w ziemi. Patodeweloperka w Polsce. Czarne, 2023)

and Bartosz Józeak (Patodeweloperka. To nie jest kraj do mieszkania.

Znak Literanova, 2024).

Polish usage as a pointed expression of this critique. The

prevalence of negative opinions about residential schemes

in Polish cities raises the question of the extent to which

densication is a planned process rather than a spontaneous

one. At the same time, the public debate includes both argu-

ments in favour of densication as a path to more sustain-

able development and objections to densication as a driver

of declining urban quality and overburdened infrastructure

(Arnberger 2012; Berghauser Pont et al. 2021).

Another salient thread in the discussion concerns the

impact of densication on the urban microclimate and the

formation of urban heat islands. Research has shown that

urbanisation raises air temperatures locally, and that mean

temperatures change more rapidly in areas undergoing ur-

banisation than elsewhere within the same city (Rozbicki

et al. 2020). This stems from increasing hard surfaces at the

expense of permeable and vegetated ones (Rinner, Hussain

2011). Under certain conditions, however, densication

can produce “cool islands” and cool street canyons through

increased shading (Vuckovic et al. 2019). These examples

underscore that urban densication and the various ways

it is pursued cannot be judged unambiguously as neg-

140 Maciej Pilny

ative or positive; its eects on urban quality are context-

dependent.

During the study period – prior to the introduction of

general plans into Poland’s spatial planning system – the

key local instrument shaping spatial policy was the Local

Spatial Development Plan (LSDP) (Nowakowski 2013).

Unlike the municipality’s higher-level Study of Conditions

and Directions of Spatial Development, LSDPs are local

legal acts and provide the binding basis for development

on the land they cover. By law, LSDPs must specify rules

for shaping development, including the maximum building

coverage ratio permitted on each site and the maximum

building height. Consequently, the content of LSDPs eec-

tively decides whether densication is possible in urbanised

areas and sets its bounds. Current regulations also allow de-

velopment on land not covered by an LSDP. Even so, plans

adopted for inner-city areas are a suitable source material

for examining how local authorities approach densifying the

urban fabric and how they regulate that process.

Description of own research

Aim and scope of the study

The purpose of the study is to establish how LSDPs shape

the development of inner-city areas with respect to densi-

cation by new residential buildings. The intermediate aims

are: to compare the maximum density indicators permitted in

LSDPs with the pre-plan state on the same land and to iden-

tify and categorise dierent densication strategies encoded

in the plans.

The temporal scope is 2010–2024. The start date corre-

sponds to a signicant amendment to the Study of Conditions

and Directions of Spatial Development of Wrocław (Uch wa-

ła Rady Miej skiej Wrocławia 2010) originally adopted in

1998. The end date is 2024, when preparations were under-

way to implement an amendment to the Spatial Planning and

Development Act introducing the general plan

which has

to replace the Study of Conditions… The territorial scope

is Wrocław’s city centre, delineated in the graphic annex

to the 2018 version of the Study of Conditions… (Uchwała

Rady Miejskiej Wrocławia 2018). The subject scope covers

analysis of the textual and graphic parts of LSDPs adopted

in the period. The research corpus comprises 95 LSDPs.

Methods

The study analyses the graphic and textual provisions of

LSDPs adopted in 2010–2024 with regard to density indica-

tors. The quantitative analysis compares the maximum oor

area ratio (FAR) specied in each plan with the pre-plan

FAR on the same land. In addition to the LSDPs themselves,

the data source was Wrocław’s Spatial Information System

In October 2024, Wrocław City Council adopted ve resolutions to

commence the preparation of Local Spatial Development Plans (LSDPs)

which, taken together, cover the entire area of the city not yet covered

by plans. The purpose was to forestall the need to issue decisions on

development conditions (WZ) during the transitional period while work

on the general plan was under way.

portal, which publishes annually updated orthophoto maps.

Historical satellite imagery was used to determine land use

prior to plan adoption.

The research was extended to include a qualitative analy-

sis of Wrocław City Council resolutions initiating the prepa-

ration of LSDPs (especially their explanatory memoranda)

and selected Council session minutes where these legal

acts were discussed. The aim of the qualitative analysis is

to identify the motivations for covering specic areas with

LSDPs.

Degree of coverage

of the study area by LSDPs

The study covers Wrocław’s city-centre area in borders

dened in the Study of Conditions… For analytical clari-

ty, it was divided according to the Study’s system of urban

units. Areas designated in the land-use drawing as indus trial,

service, green, or restricted were excluded. Adjacent urban

units with similar morphology were combined, yielding

eight research sectors: S1 – Stare Miasto; S2 – Śródmieście

Nadodrzańskie and Plac Grunwaldzki; S3 – Przedmieś-

cie Świdnickie and Oławskie; S4 – Kępa Mieszczańska;

S5 – Kle czków; S6 – Huby; S7 – Przedmieście Południowe

and Grabiszyn; S8 – Szczepin and Popowice.

By the end of 2024, LSDPs covered 52.7% of the city-

centre area; in 2010–2024, newly adopted LSDPs covered

848.05 ha, or 26.7% of the centre. Coverage was highest

in S4 – Kępa Mieszczańska (100.0%), S1 – Stare Miasto

(99.0%) and S5 – Kleczków (72.7%). These sectors also

saw the largest shares of land covered by plans adopted in

the study period – 51.5% (S4), 43.7% (S1) and 31.3% (S3)

– indicating strong local-authority interest in regulating de-

velopment on these areas.

Selection of indicators for measuring density

in LSDPs

Urban density can be captured by many indicators, most

of which fall into two groups: those based on population

and those based on the physical parameters of development

(Dovey, Pafka 2014). Density can also be measured at var-

ious scales – from the building and plot through ensem-

bles and districts to the citywide scale (Angel et al. 2021).

Commonly used metrics include population density (Cheng

2009), building coverage ratio (BCR), average weighted

num ber of storeys, oor area ratio (FAR) (Bradecki 2021),

and residential density (Wyżykowski 1973; Michalski 2010).

Given the nature and scope of LSDPs, this study relies on

physical-parameter indicators.

Under the current Spatial Planning and Development Act

(Ustawa o planowaniu i zagospodarowaniu przestrzen nym

2003), LSDPs must, among other things, dene maxi mum

above-ground FAR and the maximum share of site area that

may be occupied by buildings (BCR). The analysis did not

rely solely on the values specied in the textual part of the

plans but confronted them with the actual development ca-

pacity arising from building lines in the graphic part and

from existing buildings. FAR was estimated from the max-

imum permissible building footprint and height. Average

Urban densication in local spatial development plans: a case study of Wrocław city centre between 2010 and 2024 141

FARs for these uses ranged from 2.02 to 4.08 across sectors,

with a mean of 2.90 (versus a baseline of 1.13). Based on the

average BCR and FAR gures, the mean permitted height

of multi-family residential development in Wrocław’s city

centre can be estimated at 7.02 storeys. These data indicate

a clear planning intention to increase development density

in the city centre.

Comparing indicators by sector reveals diering densi-

cation strategies. The highest permitted residential FARs

occur in the morphologically contrasting S7 – Przedmieś-

cie Południowe and Grabiszyn (4.08) and S1 – Stare Mia-

sto (3.80). Despite similar FARs, the permitted residential

BCRs dier markedly – 70.4% in S1 versus 42.5% in S7.

In the historic core, the preference is thus for a higher BCR

combined with limits on building height. In the ring around

the centre – especially on post-industrial land where entirely

new residential ensembles can emerge – taller buildings are

allowed while retaining a relatively larger share of undevel-

oped land, notably green areas.

Four approaches to densification

in Local Spatial Development Plans

The ndings support a classication of LSDPs accord-

ing to their approach to densifying development. Four plan

types – conserving, inlling, incorporating and transform-

ing – were identied.

Conserving plans either prohibit or strictly limit new de-

velopment within the plan area. Their aim is to protect the

existing urban composition, scale and density. Examples in-

clude plans for 1970s estates along Śliczna and Gwiaź dzista

streets. These were justied by the need to counter uncon-

trolled inll – often in response to rising numbers of devel-

opment conditions applications under heightened investment

storey height was assumed at 2.9 m for residential and 3.4 m

for service buildings.

Analysis of changes in urban density indicators

in Local Spatial Development Plans

Across all sectors, the adopted LSDPs enabled an in-

crease in both BCR and FAR relative to the pre-plan con-

dition.

In most sectors, the average BCR permitted by the plans

ranged from 25% to 40%, with a mean of 29.4% across all

sectors (Fig. 1). This represents an average increase of 12.9

percentage points over the existing BCR (16.5%). The high-

est BCRs were permitted in the most central sectors – S1

– Stare Miasto; S2 – Śródmieście Nadodrzańskie and Plac

Grunwaldzki; S3 – Przedmieście Świdnickie and Oławskie

– which share a pre-20

-century morphological type domi-

nated by compact perimeter blocks of multi-family housing

and services.

LSDPs also enabled higher FARs. Prior to plan adop-

tion, the mean FAR on the study areas was 0.60, while

average maximum FARs permitted across sectors ranged

from 1.02 to 2.35, with a cross-sector mean of 1.84. The

sectors dominating in terms of FAR are those surrounding

the historic core: S2 – Śródmieście Nadodrzańskie and Plac

Grunwaldzki; S3 – Przedmieście Świdnickie and Oławskie;

S7 – Przedmieście Południowe and Grabiszyn.

A separate analysis focused on areas designated in LSDPs

for multi-family residential use (MW) and mixed residen-

tial-service use (MW-U, U-MW). In these areas, maximum

permitted BCRs across sectors ranged from circa 30% to

circa 70%, with a mean of 41.3% across all sectors (Fig. 2).

This implies an average increase of 17.0 percentage points

compared to the existing BCR (24.3%). Average permitted

Fig. 1. Radar charts showing the average building coverage ratio (a) and floor area ratio (b) in a given area prior to the adoption of LSDP,

and the average maximum parameters permitted in local plans adopted between 2010 and 2024 for the individual research sectors

(elaborated by M. Pilny)

Il. 1. Wykresy radarowe przedstawiające średni wskaźnik powierzchni zabudowy (a) i intensywności zabudowy (b) na danym terenie

przed przyjęciem MPZP i średnie maksymalne parametry dopuszczone w planach miejscowych przyjętych w latach 2010–2024

dla poszczególnych sektorów badawczych (oprac. M. Pilny)

a b

142 Maciej Pilny

The distributions and locations shown in Figure 3 indi-

cate several clear tendencies in Wrocław’s planning prac-

tice. First, there is a drive to ll gaps in areas with a clearly

dened urban fabric, as in S1 – Stare Miasto. Simultane-

ously, some existing housing estates are protected against

densication. This is especially visible in 1970s and 1980s

estates, where relatively large undeveloped areas could ac-

commodate new projects (Szafrańska 2013), albeit often

at the expense of spatial quality, residents’ access to green

space, or parking (Dąbrowski, Pilny 2021). Another strong

tendency is the incorporation of former industrial and rail-

way areas into the functional urban core by changing their

designation to mixed residential-service uses.

Conclusions

The results indicate that, in 2010–2024, densifying the

central part of Wrocław was an important objective of local

regulation. The authorities responsible for shaping the city’s

spatial policy drafted and adopted LSDPs whose provisions

explicitly addressed the densication of the urban fabric.

Motivations related to densication frequently appeared in

the explanatory memoranda accompanying resolutions to

commence the preparation of LSDPs. These memoranda

often referred to the intention to respond to pressure from

real estate developers investing in Wrocław’s centre and to

the need to bring order to this process. At the same time,

some local plans were intended to prevent densication of

particular areas. Overall, the city’s densication policy was

largely reactive, responding to ongoing investors activity

and growing market pressure to build on city centre land.

In many cases, plan-making followed opposition from local

communities to new development, especially on green land.

pressure. A hallmark of conserving plans is that permitted

density indicators are maintained at or close to existing levels.

Inlling plans set conditions for lling gaps within an

already clearly dened urban structure that nonetheless re-

quires completion. They typically enable a moderate increase

in FAR relative to existing conditions, and the permitted pa-

rameters mirror those of the surrounding buildings.

Incorporating plans change the function of the plan area

and are often linked to the conversion of sites losing their

previous purpose. Densication is usually achieved by

transforming industrial or low-intensity service land into

high-intensity residential or mixed residential-service land.

The essence of these plans is to incorporate formerly sep-

arate or mono-functional areas – such as post-industrial or

railway sites – into the city’s multifunctional core. They are

characterised by signicant increases in both BCR and FAR

relative to the pre-plan state and by the introduction of an en-

tirely new urban fabric based on a new urban composition.

To complete the typology, a fourth type – transforming

plans – is included, even though none were identied in the

analysed set; they were present in older plans. These con-

cern already built-up residential or mixed residential-service

areas, yet contain provisions aimed at reorganising the urban

composition by replacing existing structures with new de-

velopment or by adding to them in ways that substantially

alter the spatial layout. Transforming plans may increase,

decrease or maintain density indicators at levels similar to

the current condition.

Of the 95 LSDPs analysed, 38.9% were inlling plans,

31.6% incorporating plans, and 18.9% conserving plans

(Fig. 3). By land area covered, incorporating plans account-

ed for 44.9%, inlling plans for 24.6%, and conserving plans

for 20.2% (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Radar charts showing the average building coverage ratio (a) and floor area ratio (b) in a given area prior to the adoption of LSDP,

as well as the average maximum parameters permitted in local plans adopted between 2010 and 2024 for areas designated

for multi-family residential and mixed residential-service functions (elaborated by M. Pilny)

Il. 2. Wykresy radarowe przedstawiające średni wskaźnik powierzchni zabudowy (a) i intensywności zabudowy (b) na danym terenie

przed przyjęciem MPZP i średnie maksymalne parametry dopuszczone w planach miejscowych przyjętych w latach 2010–2024

dla obszarów przeznaczonych pod funkcję mieszkaniową wielorodzinną i mieszkaniowo-usługową (oprac. M. Pilny)

a b

Urban densication in local spatial development plans: a case study of Wrocław city centre between 2010 and 2024 143

The analysed LSDPs reveal dierent strategies for densi-

fying the city centre. The local authority sought to regulate

densication both through gap-site building within already

developed areas (inlling plans) and by incorporating new

areas – mainly post-industrial – into the city’s multifunc-

tional core (incorporating plans). There are also cases where

densication was treated as undesirable and LSDPs were

used to protect the existing state of development (conserv-

ing plans). No plans were found whose provisions would

bring about a comprehensive reorganisation of existing res-

idential areas (transforming plans).

The identied LSDP types correspond, to some extent,

with Michael R.G. Conzen’s (1982) four phases of the urban

development cycle (initiation, inlling, saturation and re-

duction) and with Marek Koter’s (2015) three processes

aecting morphological units or systems: inlling, supple-

menting and transformation. According to Koter, these in-

volve, respectively, adding elements to existing units, creat-

ing new units and reconstructing existing spatial structures.

In the author’s view, that terminology is only partially ap-

plicable to the typology of local plans; hence the dierent

labels for LSDP types proposed in this article.

Planned densication is evident in LSDPs adopted for

areas of diering morphological types. Strategies vary with

local conditions – historical context, morphology and degree

of development. Wrocław’s internal growth has primarily

proceeded along two lines: (i) converting post-industrial

land to residential and mixed uses and (ii) complementing

the historic fabric with gap-site inll. Some LSDPs, by con-

trast, protect against densication – especially within the

historic urban fabric and in already densely populated large

housing estates (e.g., Huby, Popowice, Szczepin). For these

Fig. 3. The location of individual types of LSDP adopted for Wrocław’s city centre between 2010 and 2024 with pie charts showing

the share of each type in terms of: a) the number of adopted plans, b) the area covered by the plans (elaborated by M. Pilny)

Il. 3. Lokalizacja poszczególnych typów MPZP uchwalanych dla śródmieścia Wrocławia w latach 2010–2024 oraz diagramy kołowe

przedstawiające udział poszczególnych typów, biorąc pod uwagę: a) liczbę uchwalonych planów, b) powierzchnię terenu objętego planami

(oprac. M. Pilny)

estates, two strategies were employed concurrently: protect-

ing inter-block green space from inll and actively building

out sites reserved in the original estate designs for service

facilities. Such densication can functionally complete es-

tates and foster a more varied and liveable urban environ-

ment (Jacobs 2014), provided that the new architecture is

not mono-functional and improves residents’ access to di-

verse functions (Sim 2019).

An increase in urban-density indicators was present in the

analysed LSDPs across all research sectors. The highest val-

ues of BCR occurred in the central part of the city, where the

historic urban fabric has been preserved, while the highest

values of FAR were found in the ring surrounding the his-

toric centre, where LSDPs typically allow taller buildings.

In the author’s assessment, spatial context played a decisive

role in shaping these indicators. The planning intention was

to protect the urban composition of the historic core, where-

as in places where the historical context was less strong, tall-

er buildings were permitted while reserving more open land.

In the study period, Wrocław’s authorities clearly sought

to establish a planning framework for densifying the in-

ner-city with residential development. This process was

driven primarily by rising housing demand – visible in all

major Polish cities – and by revived investment activity in

the housing market. This is evidenced, for example, by the

adoption of plan amendments introducing residential uses

on land previously designated for services. The analysis of

density indicators in the examined LSDPs shows that mu-

nicipal policy followed market trends by permitting proj-

ects with parameters markedly higher than those of nearby

existing buildings. The adopted LSDP provisions therefore,

to a signicant extent, prioritised densication – even at the

144 Maciej Pilny

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Streszczenie

Dogęszczanie urbanistyczne w miejscowych planach zagospodarowania przestrzennego.

Przykład śródmieścia Wrocławia w latach 2010–2024

Tło przeprowadzonych na potrzeby artykułu badań stanowi rosnąca w ostatnich latach aktywność deweloperów w centrach polskich miast. Wrocław

został wybrany jako jedno z najszybciej rozwijających się miast w Polsce. Celem badania było zidentykowanie podejścia władz planistycznych do

dogęszczania urbanistycznego w zapisach miejscowych planów zagospodarowania przestrzennego uchwalanych w latach 2010–2024. Badania objęły

analizę 95 miejscowych planów zagospodarowania przestrzennego pod kątem zawartych w nich wskaźników urbanistycznych dotyczących gęstości

zabudowy – wskaźnika powierzchni zabudowy oraz wskaźnika intensywności zabudowy.

Dzięki analizie aktywności planistycznej na terenie śródmieścia Wrocławia w latach 2010–2024 określono, w jakim stopniu proces dogęszczania

tkanki miejskiej jest planowany i kontrolowany, czyli oparty na obowiązujących miejscowych planach zagospodarowania przestrzennego. Zauważono, że

plany miejscowe używane są w celu zarówno tworzenia ram dla procesu dogęszczania zabudowy, jak i zapobiegania niechcianemu dogęszczaniu. Ziden-

tykowano występujące w dokumentach strategie dogęszczania urbanistycznego. W wyniku przeprowadzonej analizy zaproponowano autorski podział

planów miejscowych na cztery kategorie, z których każdą charakteryzuje inne podejście do procesu dogęszczania.

Słowa kluczowe: planowanie przestrzenne, Wrocław, urbanistyka, dogęszczanie

expense of maintaining urban order, understood as match-

ing the parameters of new development to the existing ur-

ban context.

A constructive response to the need for harmonious de-

velopment of inner-city areas would be to investigate urban

density at the level of individual urban units and to use the

resulting data to develop local urban standards. These could

steer densication in a controlled and balanced way that

improves – rather than diminishes – the quality of life in the

dense city. Conscious policymaking on urban densication

is not possible without in-depth analysis of the indicators

that describe urban density.